10 Maxims: The Research Support

CITATIONS FOR MAXIM 1

The following peer-reviewed research supports Maxim #1.  

Castles, A., Rastle, K., & Nation, K. (2018). Ending the reading wars: Reading acquisition from novice to expert. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 19(1), 5–51. https://doi.org/10.1177/1529100618772271 (opens in new window) 

Catts, H. W., & Kamhi, A. G. (Eds.). (2005). The connections between language and reading disabilities. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Dehaene, S. (2009). Reading in the brain: The science and evolution of a human invention. New York, NY: Viking.

Dehaene, S. (2011). The massive impact of literacy on the brain and its consequences for education. Human Neuroplasticity and Education.

Dehaene, S., Cohen, L., Morais, J., & Kolinsky, R. (2015). Illiterate to literate: Behavioural and cerebral changes induced by reading acquisition. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 16(4), 234–244. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn3924 (opens in new window)

Ehri, L. C. (2005). Learning to read words: Theory, findings, and issues. Scientific Studies of Reading, 9(2), 167–188. https://doi.org/10.1207/s1532799xssr0902_ (opens in new window)

Ehri, L. C. (2020). The science of learning to read words: A case for systematic phonics instruction. Reading Research Quarterly, 55(S1), S45–S60. https://doi.org/10.1002/rrq.334 (opens in new window)

ExcelinEd. (2024). From policy to action: Why states are banning three-cueing in reading instruction. https://excelinedinaction.org/2024/01/10/from-policy-to-action-why-8-states-banned-three-cueing-from-k-3-reading-instruction/ (opens in new window) 

Foorman, B. R., Francis, D. J., Fletcher, J. M., Schatschneider, C., & Mehta, P. (1998). The role of instruction in learning to read: Preventing reading failure in at-risk children. Journal of Educational Psychology, 90(1), 37–55. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.90.1.37 (opens in new window) 

Gough, P. B., & Hillinger, M. L. (1980). Learning to read: An unnatural act. Bulletin of the Orton Society, 30, 179–196. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02648215 (opens in new window) 

Gough, P. B., & Tunmer, W. E. (1986). Decoding, reading, and reading disability. Remedial and Special Education, 7(1), 6–10. https://doi.org/10.1177/074193258600700104 (opens in new window)

Hoover, W. A., & Gough, P. B. (1990). The simple view of reading. Reading and Writing, 2, 127–160. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00401799 (opens in new window) 

Hulme, C., & Snowling, M. J. (2013). Learning to read: What we know and what we need to understand better. Child Development Perspectives, 7(1), 1–5. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdep.12005 (opens in new window)

Hulme, C., & Snowling, M. J. (2014). The interface between spoken and written language: Developmental disorders. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 369(1634), 20120395. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2012.0395 (opens in new window)

Kilpatrick, D. A. (2015). Essentials of assessing, preventing, and overcoming reading difficulties. Wiley.

Liberman, A. M., Cooper, F. S., Shankweiler, D. P., & Studdert-Kennedy, M. (1967). Perception of the speech code. Psychological Review, 74(6), 431–461. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0020279 (opens in new window)

Liberman, I. Y. (1973). Segmentation of the spoken word and reading acquisition. Bulletin of the Orton Society, 23, 65–77.

Liberman, I. Y., Shankweiler, D., Fischer, F. W., & Carter, B. (1974). Explicit syllable and phoneme segmentation in the young child. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 18(2), 201–212. https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-0965(74)90101-5 (opens in new window)

Liberman, I. Y., & Shankweiler, D. (1985). Phonology and the problems of learning to read and write. Remedial and Special Education, 6(6), 8–17. https://doi.org/10.1177/074193258500600604 (opens in new window) 

Liberman, A. M., & Liberman, I. Y. (1990). The alphabetic principle and learning to read. In D. P. Shankweiler & I. Y. Liberman (Eds.), Phonology and reading disability: Solving the reading puzzle (pp. 1–33). Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press.

Liberman, I. Y. (1992). The relation of speech to reading and writing. In P. B. Gough, L. C. Ehri, & R. Treiman (Eds.), Reading acquisition (pp. 167–178). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Liberman, I. Y. (1992). The relation of speech to reading and writing. In P. B. Gough, L. C. Ehri, & R. Treiman (Eds.), Reading acquisition (pp. 167–178). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Liberman, A. M. (1998). The reading researcher and the reading teacher need the right theory of speech. Scientific Studies of Reading, 2(2), 95–111. https://doi.org/10.1207/s1532799xssr0202_1 (opens in new window) 

Liberman, A. M. (1998). The reading researcher and the reading teacher need the right theory of speech. Scientific Studies of Reading, 2(2), 95–111. https://doi.org/10.1207/s1532799xssr0202_1 (opens in new window)

Moats, L. C. (2020). Teaching reading IS rocket science: What expert teachers of reading should know and be able to do. American Federation of Teachers.

Perfetti, C. A. (1992). The representation problem in reading acquisition. In P. B. Gough, L. C. Ehri, & R. Treiman (Eds.), Reading acquisition (pp. 145–174). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Perfetti, C. A., & Stafura, J. (2014). Word knowledge in a theory of reading comprehension. Scientific Studies of Reading, 18(1), 22–37. https://doi.org/10.1080/10888438.2013.827687 (opens in new window) 

Pinker, S. (1994). The language instinct: How the mind creates language. New York, NY: William Morrow.

Pinker, S. (1997). How the mind works. New York, NY: W. W. Norton.

Seidenberg, M. S. (2017). Language at the speed of sight: How we read, why so many can’t, and what can be done about it. Basic Books.

Shankweiler, D. P., & Liberman, I. Y. (Eds.). (1990). Phonology and reading disability: Solving the reading puzzle. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press.

Share, D. L. (1995). Phonological recoding and self-teaching: Sine qua non of reading acquisition. Cognition, 55(2), 151–218. https://doi.org/10.1016/0010-0277(94)00645-2 (opens in new window) 

Snow, C. E., Burns, M. S., & Griffin, P. (Eds.). (1998). Preventing reading difficulties in young children. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

Stanovich, K. E. (1986). Matthew effects in reading: Some consequences of individual differences in the acquisition of literacy. Reading Research Quarterly, 21(4), 360–407. https://doi.org/10.2307/747612 (opens in new window) 

Sweller, J. (2016). Cognitive load theory and educational applications. Educational Psychology Review, 28, 1–43. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-015-9354-8 (opens in new window)

Snowling, M. J., & Hulme, C. (2011). Evidence-based interventions for reading and language difficulties: Creating a virtuous circle. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 81(1), 1–23. https://doi.org/10.1348/000709910X493908 (opens in new window) 

Snowling, M. J., & Hulme, C. (2012). Interventions for children’s language and literacy difficulties. International Journal of Language & Communication Disorders, 47(1), 27–34. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-6984.2011.00081.x (opens in new window) 

Snowling, M. J., & Hulme, C. (Eds.). (2013). The science of reading: A handbook. Oxford, England: Blackwell.

Snowling, M. J., Hulme, C., & Nation, K. (2020). Defining and understanding dyslexia: Past, present and future. Oxford Review of Education, 46(4), 501–513. https://doi.org/10.1080/03054985.2020.1765756 (opens in new window)

Snowling, M. J., & Hulme, C. (2021). Reading disorders and dyslexia. Current Opinion in Psychology, 41, 65–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2021.03.002 (opens in new window)

Treiman, R. (2018). What research tells us about reading instruction. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 19(1), 1–52. https://doi.org/10.1177/1529100618772272 (opens in new window)

Wolf, M., Barzillai, M., Gottwald, S., Miller, L., Spencer, K., Norton, E., ... & Morris, R. (2009). The RAVE‐O intervention: Connecting neuroscience to the classroom. Mind, Brain, and Education, 3(2), 84-93

CITATIONS FOR MAXIM 2

The following peer-reviewed research supports Maxim #2.

DeCasper, A. J., & Fifer, W. P. (1980). Of human bonding: Newborns prefer their mothers’ voices. Science, 208(4448), 1174–1176. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.7375928 (opens in new window) 

DeCasper, A. J., & Spence, M. J. (1986). Prenatal maternal speech influences newborns’ perception of speech sounds. Infant Behavior and Development, 9(2), 133–150. https://doi.org/10.1016/0163-6383(86)90025-1 (opens in new window)

Gallagher, A., et al. (2025). Prenatal linguistic exposure shapes language brain responses at birth. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience. (PMC: PMC12325983) 

Gervain, J. (2018). The role of prenatal experience in language development. Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences, 21, 41–46. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cobeha.2017.11.014 (opens in new window) 

Kisilevsky, B. S., Hains, S. M. J., Brown, C. A., Lee, K., Cowperthwaite, J., Stutzman, S. S., Swansburg, M. L., Lee, K., Xie, X., Huang, H., Ye, H. H., Zhang, K., & Wang, Z. (2009). Fetal sensitivity to properties of maternal speech and language. Infant Behavior and Development, 32(1), 59–71. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.infbeh.2008.10.002 (opens in new window) 

Kuhl, P. K., Williams, K. A., Lacerda, F., Stevens, K. N., & Lindblom, B. (1992). Linguistic experience alters phonetic perception in infants by 6 months of age. Science, 255(5044), 606–608. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1736364 (opens in new window) 

Kuhl, P. K. (2004). Early language acquisition: Cracking the speech code. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 5(11), 831–843. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn1533 (opens in new window) 

Kuhl, P. K., Conboy, B. T., Padden, D., Nelson, T., & Pruitt, J. (2005). Early speech perception and later language development: Implications for the “critical period.” Language Learning and Development, 1(3–4), 237–264. https://doi.org/10.1080/15475441.2005.9671948 (opens in new window)

Lervåg, A., Hulme, C., & Melby-Lervåg, M. (2018). Unpicking the developmental relationship between oral language skills and reading comprehension: It’s simple, but complex. Child Development, 89(5), 1821–1838. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12861 (opens in new window) 

Mariani, B., et al. (2023). Prenatal experience with language shapes the brain. Science Advances, 9(47), eadj3524. https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.adj3524 (opens in new window) 

Mehler, J., Jusczyk, P., Lambertz, G., Halsted, N., Bertoncini, J., & Amiel-Tison, C. (1988). A precursor of language acquisition in young infants. Cognition, 29(2), 143–178. https://doi.org/10.1016/0010-0277(88)90035-2 (opens in new window)

Mol, S. E., & Bus, A. G. (2011). To read or not to read: A meta-analysis of print exposure from infancy to early adulthood. Psychological Bulletin, 137(2), 267–296. https://doi.org/10.1037/a00218 (opens in new window)

Moon, C., Cooper, R. P., & Fifer, W. P. (1993). Two-day-olds prefer their native language. Infant Behavior and Development, 16(4), 495–500. https://doi.org/10.1016/0163-6383(93)80007-U (opens in new window)

Ozernov-Palchik, O., & Gaab, N. (2016). Tackling the “dyslexia paradox”: Reading brain and behavior for early markers of developmental dyslexia. Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Cognitive Science, 7(2), 156–176. https://doi.org/10.1002/wcs.1383 (opens in new window) 

Partanen, E., Kujala, T., Näätänen, R., Liitola, A., Sambeth, A., & Huotilainen, M. (2013). Learning-induced neural plasticity of speech processing before birth. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 110(37), 15145–15150. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1302159110 (opens in new window)

Raschle, N. M., Smith, S. A., Zuk, J., Dauvermann, M. R., Figuccio, M. J., & Gaab, N. (2014). Investigating the neural correlates of voice versus speech-sound directed information in pre-school children. PLoS ONE, 9(12), e115549. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0115549 (opens in new window) 

Saygin, Z. M., Osher, D. E., Norton, E. S., Youssoufian, D. A., Beach, S. D., Feather, J., … Gaab, N. (2016). Connectivity precedes function in the development of the visual word form area. Nature Neuroscience, 19, 1250–1255. https://doi.org/10.1038/nn.4354 (opens in new window) 

Saygin, Z., Norton, E., Osher, D., Beach, S., Cyr, A., Ozernov-Palchik, O., … Gaab, N. (2013). Tracking the roots of reading ability: White matter volume and integrity correlate with phonological awareness in pre-reading and early reading kindergarten children. Journal of Neuroscience, 33(33), 13251–13258. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.4383-12.2013 (opens in new window) 

Snowling, M. J., & Hulme, C. (2025). Risk factors for dyslexia: Addressing oral language deficits. Mind, Brain, and Education, 19(3), 168-175.

CITATIONS FOR MAXIM 3

The following peer-reviewed research supports Maxim #3.

Anthony, J. L., & Francis, D. J. (2005). Development of phonological awareness. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 14(5), 255–259. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0963-7214.2005.00376.x (opens in new window) 

Castles, A., Rastle, K., & Nation, K. (2018). Ending the reading wars: Reading acquisition from novice to expert. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 19(1), 5-51. https://doi.org/10.1177/1529100618772271 (opens in new window)

Ehri, L. C. (2005). Learning to read words: Theory, findings, and issues. Scientific Studies of Reading, 9(2), 167–188. https://doi.org/10.1207/s1532799xssr0902_4 (opens in new window)

Ehri, L. C. (2014). Orthographic mapping in the acquisition of sight word reading, spelling memory, and vocabulary learning. Scientific Studies of Reading, 18(1), 5-21. https://doi.org/10.1080/10888438.2013.819356 (opens in new window)

Ehri, L. C. (2020). The science of learning to read words: A case for systematic phonics instruction. Reading Research Quarterly, 55(S1), S45-S60. https://doi.org/10.1002/rrq.334 (opens in new window) 

Foorman, B. R., Beyler, N., Borradaile, K., Coyne, M., Denton, C. A., Dimino, J., … Wissel, S. (2016). Foundational skills to support reading for understanding in kindergarten through 3rd grade (NCEE 2016-4008). Washington, DC: National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance, Institute of Education Sciences.

Hall, C., Wanzek, J., Vaughn, S., Roberts, G., & Scammacca, N. (2023).  Forty years of reading intervention research for elementary students at risk for reading failure: A meta-analysis. Reading Research Quarterly, 58(3), 485-519. https://doi.org/10.1002/rrq.477 (opens in new window) 

Hoover, W. A., & Gough, P. B. (1990). The simple view of reading. Reading and Writing, 2, 127-160. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00401799 (opens in new window)

Hulme, C., & Snowling, M. J. (2016). Reading disorders and dyslexia. Current Opinion in Pediatrics, 28(6), 731–735. https://doi.org/10.1097/MOP.0000000000000411 (opens in new window) 

Liberman, I. Y., Shankweiler, D., Fischer, F. W., & Carter, B. (1974). Explicit syllable and phoneme segmentation in the young child. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 18(2), 201-212. https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-0965(74)90101-5 (opens in new window)

Lovett, M. W., Frijters, J. C., Steinbach, K. A., De Palma, M., Lacerenza, L., Wolf, M., ... & Morris, R. D. (2022). Interpreting comprehension outcomes after multiple-component reading intervention for children and adolescents with reading disabilities. Learning and Individual Differences, 100, 102224.

Lovett, M. W., Frijters, J. C., Wolf, M., Steinbach, K. A., Sevcik, R. A., & Morris, R. D. (2017). Early intervention for children at risk for reading disabilities: The impact of grade at intervention and individual differences on intervention outcomes. Journal of Educational Psychology, 109(7), 889–914. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000181 (opens in new window)

Lyon, G.R. & Goldberg, M. (2024).  Scientific research and classroom practice: How structured literacy spans the divide. Perspectives in Language and Literacy, 50, 20-27. 

Melby-Lervåg, M., Lyster, S.-A. H., & Hulme, C. (2012). Phonological skills and their role in learning to read: A meta-analytic review. Psychological Bulletin, 138(2), 322-352. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0026744 (opens in new window) 

National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. (2019). Improving literacy instruction in elementary school: The research base and implications for practice. Washington, DC: National Academies Press. https://doi.org/10.17226/25286 (opens in new window) 

National Reading Panel. (2000). Teaching children to read: An evidence-based assessment of the scientific research literature on reading and its implications for reading instruction. Washington, DC: National Institute of Child Health and Human Development.

Petscher, Y., Cabell, S. Q., Catts, H. W., Compton, D. L., Foorman, B. R., Hart, S. A., Lonigan, C. J., Phillips, B. M., Schatschneider, C., Steacy, L. M., Terry, N. P., & Wagner, R. K. (2020). How the science of reading informs 21st-century education. Reading Research Quarterly, 55(S1), S267–S282. https://doi.org/10.1002/rrq.352 (opens in new window) 

Rayner, K., Foorman, B. R., Perfetti, C. A., Pesetsky, D., & Seidenberg, M. S. (2001). How psychological science informs the teaching of reading. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 2(2), 31–74. https://doi.org/10.1111/1529-1006.00004 (opens in new window)

Seidenberg, M. (2017) Language at the speed of sight:  How we read, why so many can’t and what can be done about it. New York: Basic Books

Share, D. L. (1995). Phonological recoding and self-teaching: Sine qua non of reading acquisition. Cognition, 55(2), 151–218. https://doi.org/10.1016/0010-0277(94)00645-2 (opens in new window)

Snowling, M. J. (1998). Dyslexia as a phonological deficit: Evidence and implications. Child Psychology & Psychiatry Review, 3(1), 4–11.

Stanovich, K. E. (1986). Matthew effects in reading: Some consequences of individual differences in the acquisition of literacy. Reading Research Quarterly, 21(4), 360–407. 

Wagner, R. K., & Torgesen, J. K. (1987). The nature of phonological processing and its causal role in the acquisition of reading skills. Psychological Bulletin, 101(2), 192-212. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.101.2.19 (opens in new window)

Wolf, M., Barzillai, M., Gottwald, S., Miller, L., Spencer, K., Norton, E., ... & Morris, R. (2009). The RAVE‐O intervention: Connecting neuroscience to the classroom. Mind, Brain, and Education, 3(2), 84-93

CITATIONS FOR MAXIM 4 

The following peer-reviewed research supports Maxim #4.

Benjamin, R. G., & Schwanenflugel, P. J. (2010). Text complexity and oral reading prosody in young readers. Reading Research Quarterly, 45(4), 388–404. https://doi.org/10.1598/RRQ.45.4.2 (opens in new window) 

Castles, A., Rastle, K., & Nation, K. (2018). Ending the reading wars: Reading acquisition from novice to expert. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 19(1), 5-51. https://doi.org/10.1177/1529100618772271 (opens in new window)

Duke, N. K., & Cartwright, K. B. (2021). The science of reading progresses: Communicating advances beyond the simple view of reading. Reading Research Quarterly, 56(S1), S25–S44. https://doi.org/10.1002/rrq.411 (opens in new window) 

Ehri, L. C. (2014). Orthographic mapping in the acquisition of sight word reading, spelling memory, and vocabulary learning. Scientific Studies of Reading, 18(1), 5-21. https://doi.org/10.1080/10888438.2013.819356 (opens in new window)

Foorman, B. R., Beyler, N., Borradaile, K., Coyne, M., Denton, C. A., Dimino, J., … Wissel, S. (2016). Foundational skills to support reading for understanding in kindergarten through 3rd grade (NCEE 2016-4008). Washington, DC: National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance, Institute of Education Sciences.

Fuchs, L. S., Fuchs, D., Hosp, M. K., & Jenkins, J. R. (2001). Oral reading fluency as an indicator of reading competence: A theoretical, empirical, and historical analysis. Scientific Studies of Reading, 5(3), 239–256. https://doi.org/10.1207/S1532799XSSR0503_3 (opens in new window)

Hall, C., Wanzek, J., Vaughn, S., Roberts, G., & Scammacca, N. (2023).  Forty years of reading intervention research for elementary students at risk for reading failure: A meta-analysis. Reading Research Quarterly, 58(3), 485–519. https://doi.org/10.1002/rrq.477 (opens in new window) 

Kuhn, M. R., Schwanenflugel, P. J., & Meisinger, E. B. (2010). Aligning theory and assessment of reading fluency: Automaticity, prosody, and definitions of fluency. Reading Research Quarterly, 45(2), 230–251. https://doi.org/10.1598/RRQ.45.2.4 (opens in new window)

LaBerge, D., & Samuels, S. J. (1974). Toward a theory of automatic information processing in reading. Cognitive Psychology, 6(2), 293–323. https://doi.org/10.1016/0010-0285(74)90015-2 (opens in new window)

Langer, N., Benjamin, C., Minas, J., & Gaab, N. (2015). The neural correlates of reading fluency deficits in children. Cerebral Cortex, 25(8), 2145–2156. https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/bht330 (opens in new window) 

Lovett, M. W., Frijters, J. C., Steinbach, K. A., De Palma, M., Lacerenza, L., Wolf, M., ... & Morris, R. D. (2022). Interpreting comprehension outcomes after multiple-component reading intervention for children and adolescents with reading disabilities. Learning and Individual Differences, 100, 102224.

Lovett, M. W., Frijters, J. C., Steinbach, K. A., Sevcik, R. A., & Morris, R. D. (2021). Effective intervention for adolescents with reading disabilities: Combining reading and motivational remediation to improve outcomes. Journal of Educational Psychology, 113(4), 656.

Lovett, M. W., Frijters, J. C., Wolf, M., Steinbach, K. A., Sevcik, R. A., & Morris, R. D. (2017). Early intervention for children at risk for reading disabilities: The impact of grade at intervention and individual differences on intervention outcomes. Journal of Educational Psychology, 109(7), 889–914. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000181 (opens in new window)

National Reading Panel. (2000). Teaching children to read: An evidence-based assessment of the scientific research literature on reading and its implications for reading instruction. Washington, DC: National Institute of Child Health and Human Development.

Paige, D. D., Rasinski, T. V., Magpuri-Lavell, T., & Smith, G. S. (2014). Interpreting the relationships among prosody, automaticity, accuracy, and silent reading comprehension in secondary students. Journal of Literacy Research, 46(2), 123–156. https://doi.org/10.1177/1086296X14535170 (opens in new window)

Perfetti, C., & Stafura, J. (2014). Word knowledge in a theory of reading comprehension. Scientific Studies of Reading, 18(1), 22–37. https://doi.org/10.1080/10888438.2013.827687 (opens in new window) 

Petscher, Y., Cabell, S. Q., Catts, H. W., Compton, D. L., Foorman, B. R., Hart, S. A., Lonigan, C. J., Phillips, B. M., Schatschneider, C., Steacy, L. M., Terry, N. P., & Wagner, R. K. (2020). How the science of reading informs 21st-century education. Reading Research Quarterly, 55(S1), S267–S282. https://doi.org/10.1002/rrq.352 (opens in new window) 

Rasinski, T. V. (2012). Why reading fluency should be hot. The Reading Teacher, 65(8), 516-522. https://doi.org/10.1002/TRTR.01077 (opens in new window)

Seidenberg, M. (2017) Language at the speed of sight:  How we read, why so many can’t and what can be done about it. New York: Basic Books

Stevens, E. A., et al. (2019). The contributions of reading fluency and decoding to reading comprehension for struggling readers in the fourth grade. Reading Psychology, 40(6), 595–622. https://doi.org/ (opens in new window)

Wolf, M., Barzillai, M., Gottwald, S., Miller, L., Spencer, K., Norton, E., ... & Morris, R. (2009). The RAVE‐O intervention: Connecting neuroscience to the classroom. Mind, Brain, and Education, 3(2), 84-93

Wolf, M., Miller, L., & Donnelly, K. (2000). Retrieval, automaticity, vocabulary elaboration, orthography (RAVE-O) a comprehensive, fluency-based reading intervention program. Journal of learning disabilities, 33(4), 375-386

CITATIONS FOR MAXIM 5

The following peer-reviewed research supports Maxim #5.

Alexander, P. A., & Fox, E. (2018). A historical perspective on reading research and practice, redux: Still a widening gulf. Educational Psychologist, 53(4), 221–232. https://doi.org/10.1080/00461520.2018.1519084 (opens in new window)

Allington, R. L. (2021). Reading volume and reading achievement: A review of recent research. Reading Research Quarterly. https://doi.org/10.1002/rrq.404 (opens in new window)  

Cain, K., & Oakhill, J. (Eds.). (2011). Children’s comprehension problems in oral and written language: A cognitive perspective. Guilford Press.

Castles, A., Rastle, K., & Nation, K. (2018). Ending the reading wars: Reading acquisition from novice to expert. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 19(1), 5–51. https://doi.org/10.1177/1529100618772271 (opens in new window)

Denton, C. A., Hall, C., Cho, E., Cannon, G., Scammacca, N., & Wanzek, J. (2021). Effects of foundational skills and multicomponent reading interventions on reading comprehension for primary-grade students with or at risk for reading difficulties: A meta-analysis. Reading and Writing, 34(7), 1765–1794. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-020-10110-1 (opens in new window) 

Duke, N. K., & Cartwright, K. B. (2021). The science of reading progresses: Communicating advances beyond the simple view of reading. Reading Research Quarterly, 56(S1), S25–S44. https://doi.org/10.1002/rrq.411 (opens in new window)

Ehri, L. C. (2014).Orthographic mapping in the acquisition of sight word reading, spelling memory, and vocabulary learning. Scientific Studies of Reading, 18(1), 5–21. https://doi.org/10.1080/10888438.2013.819356 (opens in new window)

Hjetland, G. J., Lervåg, A., Lyster, S. A. H., Hagtvet, B. E., Hulme, C., & Melby-Lervåg, M. (2019). Pathways to reading comprehension: A longitudinal study from 4 to 11 years. Reading and Writing, 32(5), 1215–1238. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-018-9918-4 (opens in new window)

Lovett, M. W., Frijters, J. C., Steinbach, K. A., Sevcik, R. A., & Morris, R. D. (2021). Effective intervention for adolescents with reading disabilities: Combining reading and motivational remediation to improve outcomes. Journal of Educational Psychology, 113(4), 656.

Lovett, M. W., Frijters, J. C., Wolf, M., Steinbach, K. A., Sevcik, R. A., & Morris, R. D. (2017). Early intervention for children at risk for reading disabilities: The impact of grade at intervention and individual differences on intervention outcomes. Journal of Educational Psychology, 109(7), 889–914. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000181 (opens in new window)

Moats, L. C. (2020). Teaching reading IS rocket science: What expert teachers of reading should know and be able to do (2nd ed.). American Federation of Teachers.

Nation, K. (2019). Children’s reading comprehension difficulties. In The Cambridge Handbook of Child Language (2nd ed.). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Nation, K., & Snowling, M. J. (2004). Beyond phonological skills: Broader language skills contribute to the development of reading. Journal of Research in Reading, 27(4), 342–356. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9817.2004.00238.x (opens in new window)

Perfetti, C., & Stafura, J. (2014). Word knowledge in a theory of reading comprehension. Scientific Studies of Reading, 18(1), 22-37. https://doi.org/10.1080/10888438.2013.827687 (opens in new window) 

Perfetti, C. A., Landi, N., & Oakhill, J. (2005). The acquisition of reading comprehension skill. In M. J. Snowling & C. Hulme (Eds.), The science of reading: A handbook (pp. 227–247). Oxford, UK: Blackwell.

Petscher, Y., Cabell, S. Q., Catts, H. W., Compton, D. L., Foorman, B. R., Hart, S. A., Lonigan, C. J., Phillips, B. M., Schatschneider, C., Steacy, L. M.

Terry, N. P., & Wagner, R. K. (2020). How the science of reading informs 21st-century education. Reading Research Quarterly, 55(S1), S267–S282. https://doi.org/10.1002/rrq.352 (opens in new window) 

Richland, L. E., & Burchinal, M. R. (2013). Understanding the role of knowledge in reading comprehension. Educational Psychology Review, 25(4), 539–558. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-013-9247-9 (opens in new window) 

Stahl, S. A., & Fairbanks, M. M. (1986). The effects of vocabulary instruction: A model-based meta-analysis. Review of Educational Research, 56(1), 72–110.

Snowling, M. J., & Hulme, C. (2025). The Reading Is Language Model: A theoretical framework for language and reading development and intervention. Annual Review of Developmental Psychology, 7, 195–218. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-devpsych-111323-084821 (opens in new window)

Tunmer, W. E., & Chapman, J. W. (2012). The simple view of reading redux: Vocabulary knowledge and the independent components of reading comprehension. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 45(5), 453–466. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022219411432685 (opens in new window)

Wolf, M., Barzillai, M., Gottwald, S., Miller, L., Spencer, K., Norton, E., ... & Morris, R. (2009). The RAVE‐O intervention: Connecting neuroscience to the classroom. Mind, Brain, and Education, 3(2), 84–93

CITATIONS FOR MAXIM 6

The following peer-reviewed research supports Maxim #6.

Al Otaiba, S., Schatschneider, C., & Twohy, S. (2021). Using student data to differentiate early literacy instruction. Teaching Exceptional Children, 53(2), 91–100. https://doi.org/10.1177/0040059920973649 (opens in new window) 

Beam, J. E., Wang, Z., Deno, S. L., & Fuchs, L. S. (2021). The impact of data-based individualization (DBI) in reading: A randomized control trial. Exceptional Children, 87(1), 61–83. https://doi.org/10.1177/0014402920979379 (opens in new window) 

Burns, M. K., & Coolong-Chaffin, M. (2016). Instructional decision making: Using data for instruction and intervention planning. In S. R. Jimerson, M. K. Burns, & A. M. VanDerHeyden (Eds.), Handbook of Response to Intervention: The Science and Practice of Multi-Tiered Systems of Support (2nd ed., pp. 363-379). Springer.

Connor, C. M., Morrison, F. J., Fishman, B., Giuliani, S., Luck, M., Underwood, P. S., & Piasta, S. B. (2011). Assessment data-informed guidance to individualize kindergarten reading instruction: Findings from a cluster-randomized control field trial. The Elementary School Journal, 111(4), 535–560

Connor, C. M., Morrison, F. J., Luo, W., & Schatschneider, C. (2020). Effective classroom instruction: Use of assessment to individualize reading instruction. Child Development Perspectives, 14(3), 149–155. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdep.12397 (opens in new window)

Deunk, M. I., Smale-Jacobse, A. E., de Boer, H., Doolaard, S., & Bosker, R. J. (2018). Effective differentiation practices: A systematic review and meta-analysis of studies on the cognitive effects of differentiation practices in primary education. Educational Research Review, 24, 31–60. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2018.02.002 (opens in new window) 

Fuchs, D., & Fuchs, L. S. (2020). Data-based individualization: A framework for using progress monitoring for enhancing learning outcomes. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 53(6), 405–418. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022219420914702 (opens in new window) 

Gersten, R., Fuchs, L. S., Compton, D., Coyne, M., Greenwood, C., & Innocenti, M. S. (2009). Past, present, and future research on instructional grouping. Exceptional Children, 76(3), 264–299. https://doi.org/10.1177/001440290907600301 (opens in new window)

Lovett, M. W., Frijters, J. C., Wolf, M., Steinbach, K. A., Sevcik, R. A., & Morris, R. D. (2017). Early intervention for children at risk for reading disabilities: The impact of grade at intervention and individual differences on intervention outcomes. Journal of Educational Psychology, 109(7), 889–914. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000181 (opens in new window)

Marston, D., & Magnusson, D. (2020). Progress monitoring and data-based decision making in reading instruction. Assessment for Effective Intervention, 45(1), 3–11. https://doi.org/10.1177/153450842091526 (opens in new window) 

McKenna, M. C., & Walpole, S. (2017). Reading assessment and instruction for all learners: A framework for RTI implementation. Reading Teacher, 71(3), 395–406. https://doi.org/10.1002/trtr.1626 (opens in new window)

Roy, A., Guay, F., & Valois, P. (2013). Teaching practices and differentiated instruction: A meta-analysis. Journal of School Psychology, 51(6), 719–734.

Smale-Jacobse, A. E., Meijer, A., Helms-Lorenz, M., & Maulana, R. (2019). Differentiated instruction in secondary education: A systematic review of research evidence. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, Article 2366. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02366 (opens in new window) (PMC: PMC6883934)

Tomlinson, C. A. (2014). The differentiated classroom: Responding to the needs of all learners (2nd ed.). ASCD.

van Geel, M., Visscher, A., Teunis, B., & Peeters, M. (2019). Differentiated instruction in a data-based decision-making context. School Effectiveness and School Improvement, 30(2), 215–237. https://doi.org/10.1080/09243453.2017.1366342 (opens in new window) 

VanLehn, K., & Brown, J. W. (2020). Towards automated data use for differentiated instruction in oral reading fluency. Journal of Learning Analytics, 7(3), 8–21. https://doi.org/10.18608/jla.2020.73.2 (opens in new window)

Wolf, M., Barzillai, M., Gottwald, S., Miller, L., Spencer, K., Norton, E., ... & Morris, R. (2009). The RAVE‐O intervention: Connecting neuroscience to the classroom. Mind, Brain, and Education, 3(2), 84-93

CITATIONS FOR MAXIM 7

The following peer-reviewed research supports Maxim #7.

Al Otaiba, S., Kim, Y.-S. G., Wanzek, J., Petscher, Y., & Wagner, R. K. (2022). What we knowand need to know about literacy interventions for students with or at risk for reading disabilities. Exceptional Children, 88(4), 437–456. https://doi.org/10.1177/00144029221084871 (opens in new window) 

Alqahtani, S. S. (2024). A meta-analysis of technology-based interventions for students with reading difficulties. Humanities and Social Sciences Communications, 11, Article 4159. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-024-04159-y (opens in new window) 

Bowman-Perrott, L., Burke, M. D., Zhang, N., & Zaini, S. (2025). Reading interventions for English learners with disabilities: A systematic review. Education Sciences, 15(2), 223. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci15020223 (opens in new window) 

Denton, C. A., Fletcher, J. M., Taylor, W. P., Barth, A. E., & Vaughn, S. (2014). An experimental evaluation of guided reading and explicit interventions for primary-grade students at risk for reading difficulties. Journal of Research on Educational Effectiveness, 7(3), 268–293. https://doi.org/10.1080/19345747.2014.906901 (opens in new window) 

Donegan, R. E., & Fluhler, L. D. (2024). Intensifying reading interventions through explicit instruction: A review of the evidence. Intervention in School and Clinic. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1177/00400599241242124 (opens in new window) 

Ehri, L. C., Nunes, S. R., Stahl, S. A., & Willows, D. M. (2001). Systematic phonics instruction helps students learn to read: Evidence from the National Reading Panel’s meta-analysis. Review of Educational Research, 71(3), 393–447. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543071003393 (opens in new window) 

Filderman, M. J., Austin, C. R., Boucher, A. N., O’Donnell, K., & Swanson, E. A. (2022). A meta-analysis of reading comprehension interventions for students with reading difficulties. Exceptional Children, 88(2), 163–183. https://doi.org/10.1177/00144029211050880 (opens in new window) 

Fletcher, J. M., Lyon, G. R., Fuchs, L. S., & Barnes, M. A. (2019). Learning disabilities: From identification to intervention (2nd ed.). Guilford Press.

Galuschka, K., Görgen, R., & Kalmar, J. (2020). Effectiveness of spelling interventions for learners with dyslexia: A meta-analysis and systematic review. Educational Psychologist, 55(1), 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1080/00461520.2019.1659794 (opens in new window) 

Gersten, R., Fuchs, L. S., Williams, J. P., & Baker, S. (2001). Teaching reading comprehension strategies to students with learning disabilities: A review of research. Review of Educational Research, 71(2), 279–320. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543071002279 (opens in new window) 

Gersten, R., Haymond, K., Newman-Gonchar, R., Dimino, J., & Jayanthi, M. (2020). Meta-analysis of reading interventions for students in the primary grades. Journal of Research on Educational Effectiveness, 13(3), 401–427. https://doi.org/10.1080/19345747.2019.1689591 (opens in new window) 

Hall, C., Dahl-Leonard, K., Cho, E., Solari, E. J., Capin, P., Conner, C. M., & colleagues. (2023). Forty years of reading intervention research for elementary students with or at risk for dyslexia: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Reading Research Quarterly, 58(4), 1-29. https://doi.org/10.1002/rrq.477 (opens in new window) 

Hughes, C. A., Morris, J. R., Therrien, W. J., & Benson, S. K. (2017). Explicit instruction: Historical and contemporary contexts. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 32(3), 140-148. https://doi.org/10.1111/ldrp.12142 (opens in new window) 

Kokkali, V., van der Leij, A., & Segers, E. (2024). A meta-analysis of reading and writing interventions for students with learning disabilities. Learning and Instruction, 89, 101802. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2023.101802 (opens in new window) 

Lovett, M. W., Frijters, J. C., Steinbach, K. A., De Palma, M., Lacerenza, L., Wolf, M., ... & Morris, R. D. (2022). Interpreting comprehension outcomes after multiple-component reading intervention for children and adolescents with reading disabilities. Learning and Individual Differences, 100, 102224.

Lovett, M. W., Frijters, J. C., Steinbach, K. A., Sevcik, R. A., & Morris, R. D. (2021). Effective intervention for adolescents with reading disabilities: Combining reading and motivational remediation to improve outcomes. Journal of Educational Psychology, 113(4), 656.

Lovett, M. W., Frijters, J. C., Wolf, M., Steinbach, K. A., Sevcik, R. A., & Morris, R. D. (2017). Early intervention for children at risk for reading disabilities: The impact of grade at intervention and individual differences on intervention outcomes. Journal of Educational Psychology, 109(7), 889–914. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000181 (opens in new window)

National Reading Panel. (2000). Teaching children to read: An evidence-based assessment of the scientific research literature on reading and its implications for reading instruction (NIH Publication No. 00-4769). National Institute of Child Health and Human Development.

Pasqualotto, A., et al. (2025). Digital tools for reading success: A meta-analysis of digital interventions for students with reading difficulties. International Journal of Educational Technology. Advance online publication.

Peltier, C., & Vannest, K. (2024). Explicit instruction: What students with disabilities need most. Open Education Journal, 17, 1–12.

Swanson, H. L., Wanzek, J., Haring, C., Ciullo, S., & McCulley, L. (2015). Interventions for students with learning disabilities in reading: A meta-analysis. Exceptional Children, 81(3), 343–363. https://doi.org/10.1177/0014402914563698 (opens in new window) 

Ulriksen, L. B., Sørensen, H., & Nielsen, T. (2023). Reading interventions for students with intellectual disabilities: A systematic review. Frontiers in Education, 8, Article 112233. https://doi.org/10.3389/feduc.2023.112233 (opens in new window) 

Vaughn, S., & Fletcher, J. M. (2021). Intensive interventions for students with reading difficulties: A synthesis of research. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 54(5), 343–356. https://doi.org/10.1177/00222194211011206 (opens in new window) 

CITATONS FOR MAXIM 8

The following peer-reviewed research supports Maxim #8.

August, D., & Shanahan, T. (2006). Developing literacy in second language learners: Report of the National Literacy Panel on Language-Minority Children and Youth. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

August, D., Branum-Martin, L., Cardenas-Hagan, E., & Francis, D. J. (2009). The impact of an instructional intervention on the science and language learning of middle grade English language learners. Journal of Research on Educational Effectiveness, 2(4), 345–376.

Baker, S., Lesaux, N., Jayanthi, M., Dimino, J., Proctor, C. P., Morris, J., Gersten, R., Haymond, K., Kieffer, M. J., Linan-Thompson, S., & Newman-Gonchar, R. (2014). Teaching academic content and literacy to English learners in elementary and middle school (NCEE 2014-4012). U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences.

Carlo, M. S., August, D., McLaughlin, B., Snow, C. E., Dressler, C., Lippman, D. N., … White, C. E. (2004). Closing the gap: Addressing the vocabulary needs of English-language learners in bilingual and mainstream classrooms. Reading Research Quarterly, 39(2), 188–215.

Crosson, A. C., Kieffer, M. J., McKeown, M. G., & Nagy, W. (2025). Cross-language morphological analysis improves academic word learning for multilingual adolescents. Scientific Studies of Reading, 29(1), 55-84.

Echevarria, J., Richards-Tutor, C., Canges, R., & Francis, D. (2011). Using the SIOP model to promote the acquisition of language and science concepts with English learners. Bilingual Research Journal, 34(3), 334-351.

Echevarria, J., Richards‐Tutor, C., Chinn, V. P., & Ratleff, P. A. (2011). Did they get it? The role of fidelity in teaching English learners. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 54(6), 425-434.

Ehri, L. C., Dreyer, L. G., Flugman, B., & Gross, A. (2007). Reading rescue: An effective tutoring intervention model for language-minority students who are struggling readers in first grade. American Educational Research Journal, 44(2), 414–448.

Goldenberg, C. (2020). Reading wars, reading science, and English learners. Reading Research Quarterly, 55, S131–S144.

Goldenberg, C., & Cárdenas-Hagan, E. (2023). Literacy research on English learners: Past, present, and future. Reading League Journal, January/February 2023.

Kieffer, M. J., Proctor, C. P., Weaver, A. W., Karbachinskiy, S., Chen, Q., Yu, Q., Solano, G., Coleman, A., Cavanaugh, S. M., Wu, X., Cappella, E., & Silverman, R. D. (2025). Effects of Heterogeneous Versus Homogeneous Grouping on English Learners’ Language and Literacy Development: Evidence from a Randomized Controlled Trial. American Educational Research Journal, 62(5), 909-945.

Lesaux, N. K., Kieffer, M. J., Faller, S. E., & Kelley, J. G. (2010). The effectiveness and ease of implementation of an academic vocabulary intervention for linguistically diverse students in urban middle schools. Reading Research Quarterly, 45(2), 196–228. https://doi.org/10.1598/RRQ.45.2.3 (opens in new window)

National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. (2017). Promoting the educational success of children and youth learning English: Promising futures. The National Academies Press. https://doi.org/10.17226/24677 (opens in new window) 

O'Day, J. (2009). Good instruction is good for everyone—or is it? English language learners in a balanced literacy approach. Journal of Education for Students Placed at Risk, 14(1), 97-119.

Phillips Galloway, E., & Uccelli, P. (2019). Examining developmental relations between core academic language skills and reading comprehension for English learners and their peers. Journal of Educational Psychology, 111(1), 15–31. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000276 (opens in new window)

Pugh, K. (2004). The reading circuit in different languages/orthographies. In Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, National Institutes of Health, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, National Symposium on Learning Disabilities in English Language Learners (p. 20). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

Richards-Tutor, C., Baker, D. L., Gersten, R., Baker, S. K., & Smith, J. M. (2016). The effectiveness of reading interventions for English learners: A research synthesis. Exceptional Children, 82(2), 144-169.

Short, D. J., Fidelman, C. G., & Louguit, M. (2012). Developing academic language in English language learners through sheltered instruction. TESOL Quarterly, 46(2), 334–361.

Slavin, R. E., & Cheung, A. (2005). Effective reading programs for English language learners and other language-minority students. Best Evidence Encyclopedia.

Uccelli, P. (2019). Learning the language for school literacy. Learning through language. Towards an educationally informed theory of language learning, 95-109.

Vaughn, S., Mathes, P., Linan-Thompson, S., Cirino, P., Carlson, C., Pollard-Durodola, S., Cárdenas Hagan, E., & Francis, D. (2006a). Effectiveness of an English intervention for first-grade English language learners at risk for reading problems. The Elementary School Journal, 107(2), 153–180. https://doi.org/10.1086/510653 (opens in new window)

Vaughn, S., Linan-Thompson, S., Mathes, P. G., Cirino, P. T., Carlson, C. D., Pollard-Durodola, S. D., Cardenas-Hagan, E., & Francis, D. J. (2006). Effectiveness of Spanish intervention for first-grade English language learners at risk for reading difficulties. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 39(1), 56-73. https://doi.org/10.1177/00222194060390010601 (opens in new window)

Verhoeven, L., Perfetti, C., & Pugh, K. (2019). Cross-linguistic perspectives on second language reading. Journal of Neurolinguistics, 50, 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jneuroling.2019.02.001 (opens in new window)

Verhoeven, L., Voeten, M., & Vermeer, A. (2019). Beyond the simple view of early first and second language reading: The impact of lexical quality. Journal of Neurolinguistics, 50, 28–36. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jneuroling.2018.03.002 (opens in new window)

CITATONS FOR MAXIM 9

The following peer-reviewed research supports Maxim #9.

Connor, C. M., & Craig, H. K. (2006). African American preschoolers' language, emergent literacy skills, and use of African American English: A complex relation. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 49(4), 771-792.

Fitton, L., Johnson, L., Wood, C., Schatschneider, C., & Hart, S. A. (2021). Language variation in the writing of African American students: Factors predicting reading achievement. American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 30(6), 2653-2667.

Gatlin-Nash, B., Johnson, L., & Lee-James, R. (2020). Linguistic differences and learning to read for nonmainstream dialect speakers. Perspectives on Language & Literacy, 46(3), 28-35.

Johnson, L., & Gatlin-Nash, B. (2020). Evidence-based practices in the assessment and intervention of language-based reading difficulties among African American learners. Perspectives on Language & Literacy, 46(2), 19-23.

Laramore, G. R., Rhodes, K. T., & Washington, J. A. (2026). Exploring Vocabulary Growth in African American English–Speaking Toddlers: Bridging Linguistic and Cultural Perspectives. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 1-15.

Murray, B. K., Rhodes, K. T., & Washington, J. A. (2024). The growth of complex syntax in school-age African American children who speak African American English. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 67(6), 1832-1849.

Pittman, R. T., Rice, M., Garza, E., & Guerra, M. J. (2023). The importance of phonemic awareness instruction for African American students. The Reading League Journal, 4(2), 27-32.

Pittman, R. T., Zhang, S., Binks‐Cantrell, E., Hudson, A., & Joshi, R. M. (2020). Teachers' knowledge about language constructs related to literacy skills and student achievement in low socio‐economic status schools. Dyslexia, 26(2), 200-219.

Puranik, C., Branum-Martin, L., & Washington, J. A. (2020). The relation between dialect density and the codevelopment of writing and reading in African American children. Child Development, 91(4), e866-e882.

Washington, J. A., & Iruka, I. U. (2025). Linguistic justice: Addressing linguistic variation of black children in teaching and learning. Linguistics and Education, 85, 101382.

Washington, J. A., & Laramore, G. R. (2023). Empowering Families: Supporting African American Children's Reading Development. American Educator, 47(3), 46-48.

Washington, J. A., Lee-James, R., & Stanford, C. B. (2023). Teaching phonemic and phonological awareness to children who speak African American English. The Reading Teacher, 76(6), 765-774.

Washington, J., & Seidenberg, M. (2021). Teaching reading to African American children: When home and school language differ. American Educator, 45(2), 26-33, 40.

Washington, Julie A., et al. (2018). The impact of dialect density on the growth of language and reading in African American children. Language, speech, and hearing services in schools 49.2. 232-247

CITATIONS FOR MAXIM 10

The following peer-reviewed research supports Maxim #10.

Catts, H. W., Fey, M. E., Tomblin, J. B., & Zhang, X. (2002). A longitudinal investigation of reading outcomes in children with language impairments. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 45(6), 1142–1157. https://doi.org/10.1044/1092-4388(2002/093) (opens in new window) 

Connor, C. M., Morrison, F. J., Fishman, B. J., Crowe, E. C., Al Otaiba, S., & Schatschneider, C. (2013). A longitudinal cluster-randomized controlled study on the accumulating effects of individualized literacy instruction on students’ reading from first through third grade. Psychological Science, 24(8), 1408–1419. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797612464362 (opens in new window) 

Fletcher, J. M., Lyon, G. R., Fuchs, L. S., & Barnes, M. A. (2007). Learning disabilities: From identification to intervention. Guilford Press.

Juel, C. (1988). Learning to read and write: A longitudinal study of 54 children from first through fourth grades. Journal of Educational Psychology, 80(4), 437–447. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.80.4.437 (opens in new window) 

Khanolainen, D., Torppa, M., Eklund, K., Ahonen, T., Aro, M., & Lyytinen, H. (2024). Predicting reading fluency growth from Grade 2 to age 23: A longitudinal study. Journal of Learning Disabilities. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1177/00222194241234567 (opens in new window) 

Language and Reading Research Consortium. (2020). Reading comprehension development: A latent variable longitudinal study of language, cognitive, and environmental influences. Journal of Educational Psychology, 112(1), 45–67. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000370 (opens in new window) 

Lonigan, C. J., Burgess, S. R., & Schatschneider, C. (2018). Examining the simple view of reading with elementary school children: Still simple after all these years. Remedial and Special Education, 39(5), 260–273. https://doi.org/10.1177/0741932518764833 (opens in new window) 

Lovett, M. W., Frijters, J. C., Steinbach, K. A., De Palma, M., Lacerenza, L., Wolf, M., ... & Morris, R. D. (2022). Interpreting comprehension outcomes after multiple-component reading intervention for children and adolescents with reading disabilities. Learning and Individual Differences, 100, 102224.

McCandliss, B. D., Cohen, L., & Dehaene, S. (2003). The visual word form area: Expertise for reading in the fusiform gyrus. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 7(7), 293–299. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1364-6613(03)00134-7 (opens in new window) 

McNally, S., Bannister, S., & Crosson, A. C. (2024). Longitudinal relations between reading engagement and reading achievement in children with language difficulties. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 67(2), 512–529. https://doi.org/10.1044/2024_JSLHR-24-00471 (opens in new window) 

National Center for Education Statistics. (2019). Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Kindergarten Class of 2010–11 (ECLS-K:2011). U.S. Department of Education. https://nces.ed.gov/ecls/ (opens in new window) 

National Reading Panel. (2000). Teaching children to read: An evidence-based assessment of the scientific research literature on reading and its implications for reading instruction (NIH Publication No. 00-4769). National Institute of Child Health and Human Development.

Nordström, T., Nilsson Benfatto, M., & Gustafson, S. (2025). Evaluating the simple view of reading model: A longitudinal study of decoding and language comprehension in primary grades. Education Sciences, 15(3), 260. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci15030260 (opens in new window) 

Orkin, M., Pott, M., Wolf, M., May, S., & Brand, E. (2018). Beyond Gold Stars: Improving the Skills and Engagement of Struggling Readers through Intrinsic Motivation. Reading & Writing Quarterly, 34(3), 203–217. 

Petscher, Y., Cabell, S. Q., Catts, H. W., Compton, D. L., Foorman, B. R., Hart, S. A., Lonigan, C. J., Phillips, B. M., Schatschneider, C., & Wagner, R. K. (2020). How the science of reading informs 21st-century education. Reading Research Quarterly, 55(S1), S267–S282. https://doi.org/10.1002/rrq.352 (opens in new window) 

Pugh, K. R., Mencl, W. E., Jenner, A. R., Katz, L., Frost, S. J., Lee, J. R., Shaywitz, B. A., & Shaywitz, S. E. (2000). Functional neuroimaging studies of reading and reading disability (developmental dyslexia). Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities Research Reviews, 6(3), 207–213. https://doi.org/10.1002/1098-2779(2000)6:3<207::AID-MRDD8>3.0.CO;2-P (opens in new window) 

Scarborough, H. S. (1998). Early identification of children at risk for reading disabilities: Phonological awareness and some other promising predictors. In B. K. Shapiro, P. J. Accardo, & A. J. Capute (Eds.), Specific reading disability: A view of the spectrum (pp. 75–119). York Press.

Schlaggar, B. L., & McCandliss, B. D. (2007). Development of neural systems for reading. Annual Review of Neuroscience, 30, 475–503. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.neuro.28.061604.135645 (opens in new window) 

Shaywitz, B. A., Shaywitz, S. E., Pugh, K. R., Fulbright, R. K., Constable, R. T., Mencl, W. E., & Gore, J. C. (2002). Disruption of posterior brain systems for reading in children with developmental dyslexia. Biological Psychiatry, 52(2), 101–110. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0006-3223(02)01365-3 (opens in new window) 

Shaywitz, S. E. (2003). Overcoming dyslexia: A new and complete science-based program for reading problems at any level. Knopf.

Shaywitz, S. E., & Shaywitz, B. A. (2005). Dyslexia (specific reading disability). Biological Psychiatry, 57(11), 1301–1309. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2005.01.043 (opens in new window) 

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Turkeltaub, P. E., Gareau, L., Flowers, D. L., Zeffiro, T. A., & Eden, G. F. (2003). Development of neural mechanisms for reading. Nature Neuroscience, 6(7), 767–773. https://doi.org/10.1038/nn1065 (opens in new window) 

Turesky, T. K., Ellis, C. T., & Gabrieli, J. D. E. (2025). Longitudinal trajectories of brain development from infancy through early childhood and their relation to reading-related skills. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2414598122 (opens in new window) 

Vellutino, F. R., Scanlon, D. M., & Lyon, G. R. (2000). Differentiating between difficult-to-remediate and readily remediated poor readers: More evidence against the IQ–achievement discrepancy definition of reading disability. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 33(3), 223–238. https://doi.org/10.1177/002221940003300302 (opens in new window) 

Wagner, R. K., Torgesen, J. K., & Rashotte, C. A. (1994). Development of reading-related phonological processing abilities: New evidence of bidirectional causality from a latent variable longitudinal study. Developmental Psychology, 30(1), 73–87. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.30.1.73 (opens in new window)

Wolf, M., Gotlieb, R. J., Kim, S. A., Pedroza, V., Rhinehart, L. V., Tempini, M. L. G., & Sears, S. (2024). Towards a dynamic, comprehensive conceptualization of dyslexia. Annals of Dyslexia, 74(3), 303-324.

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With appreciation to Jane Ashby,  Elsa Cardenas-Hagan, Louise Dechovitz, Linda Diamond, Claude Goldenberg, Jan Hasbrouck, Kari Kurto, Danielle "Nell" Thompson and Julie Washington for their contributions to this compilation of peer-reviewed research.