10 Maxims: The Research Support
What We've Learned So Far About How Children Learn to Read
Maxim 1: Almost all children learn to speak naturally; reading and writing must be taught.
Maxim 2: Literacy begins at birth. It is rooted in early social interactions and experiences that include regular exposure to oral language and print. Strong roots tend to produce stronger readers.
The following peer-reviewed research supports the above maxims.
Adams, M. (1990). Beginning to read: thinking and learning about print. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Blachman, B. A., Schatschneider, C., Fletcher, J. M., Francis, D. J., Clonan, S., Shaywitz, B., et al. (2004). Effects of intensive reading remediation for second and third graders. Journal of Educational Psychology, 96, 444-461.
Carnine, D., Silbert, J., & Kameenui, E. (1997).
Chall, J. S. (1983). Learning to read: the great debate (2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.
Denton, C.A., Vaughn, S., Wexler, J., Bryan, D., Reed, D. (2012) Effective instruction for middle school students with reading difficulties: The reading teacher’s sourcebook. Baltimore, MD: Paul Brookes.
Fletcher, J. M., Lyon, G. R., Fuchs, L. S., & Barnes, M. A. (2019). Learning disabilities: From identification to intervention (2nd ed.). The Guilford Press.
Foorman, B. R. (1995b). Research on “the great debate”: Code-oriented versus whole language approaches to reading instruction. School Psychology Review, 24, 376-392.
Foorman, B. R., Francis, D. J., Shaywitz, S. E., Shaywitz, B. A., & Fletcher, J. M. (1997). The case for early reading intervention. In B. Blachman (Ed.), Foundations of reading acquisition and
Foorman, B. R., Francis, D. J. Fletcher, J. M., Schatschneider, C., & Mehta, P. (1998). The role of instruction in learning to read: Preventing reading failure in at-risk children. Journal of Educational Psychology, 90(1) 37–55.
Foorman, B. (Ed.). (2003). Preventing and remediating reading difficulties: Bringing science to scale. Baltimore: York Press.
Fletcher, J.M. and G.R. Lyon. (in press). Reading: A research-based approach. Palo Alto, Calif.: Hoover Institute.
Foorman, B. R., Francis, D. J., Fletcher, J. M., Schatschneider, C., & Mehta, P. (1998). The role of instruction in learning to read: Preventing reading failure in at-risk children. Journal of Educational Psychology 90, 1-15.
Gough, P. B., & Hillinger, M. L. (1980). Learning to read: An unnatural act. Bulletin of the Orton Society, 30, 179-196.
Gough, P. B., Alford, J. A., and Holley-Wilcox, P. (1981). Words and contexts. Perception of Print: Reading Research in Expe
Gough, P. B., Juel, C., and Griffith, P. (1992). Reading, spelling, and the othographic cipher. Reading Acquisition, edited by P. B. Gough, L. C. Ehri, and R. Trieman. Hillsdale, N.J.: Erlbaum.
Iversen, S., & Tunmer, W. (1993). Phonological processing skills and the reading recovery program. Journal of Educational Psychology, 85, 112-126.
Just, C., & Carpenter, P. A. (1980). A theory of reading: From eye fixations to comprehension. Psychological Review 87, 329-354.
Kavanagh, J.F., & Mattingly, I.G. (Eds.), Language by Ear and by Eye: The Relationships Between Speech and Reading. The MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts: 1972.
King, R., & Torgesen, J. (2006). Improving the effectiveness of reading instruction in one elementary school: A description of the process. P. Blaunstein & R. Lyon (Eds.), It doesn’t have to be this way. (pp. 1-26) Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press, Inc.
Liberman, A. M. (1992). The relation of speech to reading and writing.
Liberman, I. Y., Liberman, A. M. (1990). Whole language vs. code emphasis: Underlying assumptions and their implications for reading instruction. Annals of
Lyon, G. R., Moats, L. C. (1997). Critical conceptual and methodological considerations in reading intervention research. Journal of Learning Disabilities 30(6), 578-88.
Lyon, G. R. (1998). Why reading is not a natural process. Educational Leadership, 55(6), 14-18.
Lyon, G. R., Shaywitz, S. E., Shaywitz, B. A., Chhabra, V., & Adams, M. J. (2005). Evidence-based reading policy in the United States: How scientific research informs instructional practices. Brookings Papers on Education Policy, (8), 209-250.
Mathes, P. G., Denton, C. A., Fletcher, J. M., Anthony, J. L., Francis, D. J., & Schatschneider, C. (2005). The effects of theoretically different instruction and student characteristics on the skills of struggling readers. Readings in Research Quarterly, 40, 148-182.
McCardle, P., & Chhabra, V. (2004). The voice of evidence in reading research. Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes.
Mehta, P. D., Foorman, B. R., Branum-Martin, L., & Taylor, W. P. (2005). Literacy as a unidimensional multilevel construct: Validation, sources of influence, and implications in a longitudinal study in grades 1 to 4. Scientific Studies of Reading, 9(2), 85-116.
Moats, L. C. (1995). The missing foundation in teacher preparation. American Educator, 19(9), 43–51.
Moats, L. (2007). Whole-language high jinks: How to tell when “scientifically-based reading instruction” isn’t. Thomas B. Fordham Institute.
Moats, L. C. & Lyon, G. R. (1996). Wanted: Teachers with knowledge of language. Topics in Language Disorders, (16) 73-86.
Ramona T. Pittman, Shuai Zhang, Emily Binks-Cantrell, Alida Hudson, R., and Malatesha J.(2019). Teachers’ knowledge about language constructs related to literacy skills and student achievement in low socio-economic status schools.
Rashotte, C. A., MacPhee, K., & Torgesen, J. K. (2001). The effectiveness of a group reading instruction program with poor readers in multiple grades. Learning Disabilities Quarterly, (24) 119-134.
Rayner, K., Foorman, B. R., Perfetti, C. A., Pesetsky, D., & Seidenberg, M.S. (2001). How psychological science informs the teaching of reading. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 2(2), 31-74. https://doi.org/10.1111/1529-1006.00004
Rayner, K. & Pollatsek, A. (1989). The work of the eyes. The Psychology of Reading. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice.
Reichle, E. D., Pollatsek, A., & Rayner, K. (2006). E-Z reader: A cognitive-control, serial-attention model of eye-movement behavior during reading. Cognitive Systems Research, 7 (1), 4-22.
Ryder, J. F., Tunmer, W. E., & Greaney, K. T. (2008). Explicit instruction in phonemic awareness and phonemically based decoding skills as an intervention strategy for struggling readers in whole language classrooms. Reading and Writing, 21, 349-369.
Shaywitz, S. E., & Shaywitz, B. A. (2004). The new science of reading and its implications for the classroom. Education Canada, 44(1), 20-23.
Shaywitz, S. E., & Shaywitz, B. A. (2003). The science of reading and dyslexia. Journal of American Association for Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabismus, 7(3),158-166.
Stahl, S. A., McKenna, M. C, & Pagnucco, J. R. (1994). The effects of whole-language instruction: An update and a reappraisal. Educational Psychologist, 29, 275-186.
Stanovich, K.E. (1994). Romance and reality. The Reading Teacher, 47, 280-291. http://www.keithstanovich.com/Site/Research_on_Reading_files/RdTch93.pdf
Stanovich, K. (2000). Progress in understanding reading. New York: Guilford.
Stanovich, K.E., R. F. West, and D. J. Freeman. (1981). A Longitudinal Study of Sentence Context Effects in Second-grade Children: Tests of an Interactive-Compensatory Model. Journal of Expe
Vellutino, F. R.; Fletcher, J.M.; Snowling, M. J.; Scanlon, D. M. (2004). Specific reading disability (dyslexia): what have we learned in the past four decades? Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 45, 2.
Vellutino, F. R. (1991). Introduction to three studies on reading acquisition: convergent findings on theoretical foundations of code-oriented versus whole-language approaches to reading. Journal of Educational Psychology, 83(4), 437-443.
Wagner, R.K., & Torgesen, J.K. (1987). The nature of phonological processing and its causal role in the acquisition of reading skills. Psychological Bulletin, 101(2), 192–212. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.101.2.192
Wren, S. (2015). Ten Myths About Learning to Read. Retrieved October 5, 2015, from https://www.readingrockets.org/article/ten-myths-about-learning-read
Maxim 3: All good readers are good decoders. Decoding should be taught until children can accurately and independently read new words. Decoding depends on phonemic awareness: a child’s ability to identify individual speech sounds. Decoding is the on-ramp for word recognition.
The following peer-reviewed research supports the above maxim.
Aaron, P. G., Joshi, R. M., Boulware-Gooden, R., & Bentum, K. (2008). Diagnosis and treatment of reading disabilities based on the component model of reading: An alternative to the discrepancy model of learning disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 41, 67-84.
Adams, M. (1990). Beginning to read: thinking and learning about print. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Adams, M. J. (1998). The Three-cueing system. In F. Lear and J. Osborn (Eds.), Literacy for All in Teaching and Learning, 73-99. New York: Guilford Press.
Adolf, S. M., Catts, H. W., & Little, T. D. (2006). Should the simple view of reading include a fluency component? Reading and Writing, 19, 933–958.
Archer, A. L., Gleason, M. M., & Vachon, V. L. (2003). Decoding and fluency: Foundation skills for struggling older readers. Learning Disability Quarterly, 26, 89-101.
Ball, E. W., & Blachman, B. A. (1991). Does phoneme awareness training in kindergarten make a difference in early word recognition and developmental spelling? Reading Research Quarterly, 26, 49-66.
Bradley, L., & Bryant, P. E. (1983). Categorizing sounds and learning to read — a causal connection. Nature, 301, 419-421.
Barth, A. E, Catts, H. W., & Anthony, J. L. (2009) The component skills underlying reading fluency in adolescent readers: a latent variable analysis. Reading and Writing, 22, 567-590.
Beck, I.L., McKeown, M.G., & Kucan, L. (2002) Bringing words to life: robust
Beck, I. L., & McKeown, M. G. (2007). Increasing young low-income children’s oral vocabulary repertoires through rich and focused instruction. Elementary School Journal, 107(3), 251-273.
Beck, I. L., McKeown, M. G., & Kucan, L. (2008). Creating robust
Beck, I. L., McKeown, M. G., & Omanson, R. (1987). The effects and uses of diverse
Berne, J. I., & Blachowicz, C. Z. (2008). What reading teachers say about vocabulary instruction: voices from the classroom. Reading Teacher, 62(4), 314-323.
Bowers, J. S., & Bowers, P. N. (2017). Beyond phonics: The case for teaching children the logic of the english selling system. Educational Psychologist, 52, 124–141. 2017
Bowers, J. S., and Bowers, P. N. (in press). Progress in reading instruction requires a better understanding of the English spelling system. Current Directions in Psychological Science.
Brady, S. (2011). Efficacy of phonics teaching for reading outcomes: Implications from Post-NRP research. S. Brady, D. Braze, & C Fowler. (Eds.), Explaining Individual Differences in Reading (pp. 69-96), London: Psychology Press.
Braze, D., Katz, L., Magnuson, J. S., Mencl, W. E., Tabor, W., Van Dyke, J. A., & Shankweiler, D. P. (2016). Vocabulary does not complicate the simple view of reading. Reading and Writing, 29(3), 435–451.
Butterfuss, R., & Kendeou, P. (2018). The role of executive functions in reading comprehension. Educational Psychology Review, 30(3), 801–826.
Byrne, B., & Fielding-Barnsley, R. (1995). Evaluation of a program to teach phonemic awareness to young children: A 2- and 3-year follow-up and a new preschool trial. Journal of Educational Psychology, 87(3), 488–503.
Cabell, S. Q., & Hwang, H. (2020). Building content knowledge to boost comprehension in the primary grades. Reading Research Quarterly, 55(S1), S99–S107.
Cartwright, K. B. (2002). Cognitive development and reading: The relation of reading-specific multiple classification skill to reading comprehension in elementary school children. Journal of Educational Psychology, 94(1), 56–63.
Cartwright, K. B. (2015). Executive skills and reading comprehension: A guide for educators. New York, NY: Guilford
Cartwright, K. B., Bock, A. M., Clause, J. H., Coppage August, E. A., Saunders, H. G., & Schmidt, K. J. (2020). Near- and far-transfer effects of an executive function intervention for 2nd to 5th grade struggling readers. Cognitive Development, 56, Article 100932
Cartwright, K. B., Coppage, E. A., Lane, A. B., Singleton, T., Marshall, T. R., & Bentivegna, C. (2017). Cognitive flexibility deficits in children with specific reading comprehension difficulties. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 50, 33–44.
Cartwright, K. B., & Duke, N. K. (2019). The DRIVE model of reading: Making the complexity of reading accessible. The Reading Teacher, 73(1), 7–15.
Cartwright, K. B., Lee, S. A., Taboada Barber, A., DeWyngaert, L. U., Lane, A. B., & Singleton, T. (2020). Contribution of executive function and intrinsic motivation to university students’ reading comprehension. Reading Research Quarterly, 55(3), 345–369.
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Calhoon, M. B., (2005). Effects of a peer-mediated phonological skill and reading comprehension program on reading skill acquisition of middle school students with reading disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 38(5), 424-433.
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Maxim 4: Fluent readers can instantly and accurately recognize most words in a text. They can read with expression and at an appropriate rate for their age. Reading fluency requires comprehension AND it supports comprehension.
The following peer-reviewed research supports the above maxim.
Archer, A. L., Gleason, M. M., & Vachon, V.L. (2003). Decoding and fluency: Foundation skills for struggling older readers. Learning Disability Quarterly, 26, 89-101.
Barth, A. E, Catts, H. W., & Anthony, J. L. (2009). The component skills underlying reading fluency in adolescent readers: a latent variable analysis. Reading and Writing, 22, 567-590.
Bashir, A. S., & Hook, P. E. (2009). Fluency: A key link between word identification and comprehension. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 40, 196-200.
Beck, I. L., McKeown, M. G., & Kucan, L. (2002) Bringing words to life: Robust
Cutting, L. E., Materek, A., Cole, C., Levine, T. M., & Mahone, E. M. (2009). Effects of fluency, oral language, and executive function on reading comprehension performance. Annals of
Denton, C. A., Barth, A. E., Fletcher, J.M., Wexler, J. , Vaughn, S., Cirino, P. T., Romain, M., & Francis, D. J. (2011) The relations among oral and silent reading fluency and comprehension in middle school: Implications for identification and instruction of students with reading difficulties. Scientific Studies of Reading, 15 (2), 109-135.
Fletcher, J. M., Lyon, G. R., Fuchs, L. S., & Barnes, M. A. (2019). Learning disabilities: From identification to intervention (2nd ed.). The Guilford Press.
Good, R. H., Simmons, D. C., & Kame’enui, E. J. (2001). The importance and decision-making utility of a continuum of fluency-based indicators of foundational reading skills for third-grade high-stakes outcomes. Scientific Studies of Reading, 5, 257-288.
Hudson, A., Koh, P. W., Moore, K. A., & Binks-Cantrell, E. (2020). Fluency interventions for elementary students with reading difficulties: A synthesis of research from 2000–2019. Education Sciences, 10(3), 52.
Joseph, L. M., & Schisler, R. (2009). Should adolescents go back to the basics? A review of teaching word reading skills to middle and high school students. Remedial and Special Education, 30(3), 131-147.
Kim, Y. S., Petscher, Y., Schatschneider, C., & Foorman, B. (2010). Does growth rate in oral reading fluency matter in predicting reading comprehension achievement? Journal of Educational Psychology, 102, 652-667.
Kim, Y. S., Wagner, R. K., & Foster, E. (2011). Relations among oral reading fluency, silent reading fluency, and reading comprehension: a latent variable study of first grade readers. Scientific Studies of Reading, 15, 338-362.
Klauda, S. L., & Guthrie, J. T. (2008). Relationships of three components of reading fluency to reading comprehension. Journal of Educational Psychology, 100(2), 310.
Kocaarslan, M. (2021). The relationships between oral reading fluency, sustained attention, working memory, and text comprehension in the third-grade students. Psychology in the Schools, 59, 744-764.
Kuhn, M., Schwanenflugel, E., & Meisinger, E. (2010). Aligning theory and assessment of reading fluency: Automaticity, prosody, and definitions of fluency. Reading Research Quarterly, 45, 230-251.
Kuhn, M. R., Schwanenflugel, P. J., Morris, R. D., Morrow, L. M., Woo, D. G., Meisinger, E. B., Sevcik, R. A., Bradley, B. A., & Stahl, S. A. (2006). Teaching children to become fluent and automatic readers. Journal of Literacy Research, 38, 357-387.
Naveenkumar, N., Georgiou, G. K., Vieira, A. P. A., Romero, S., & Parrila, R. (2022). A systematic review on quality indicators of randomized control trial reading fluency intervention studies. Reading and Writing Quarterly, 38(4), 359-378.
Rasinski, T.V. (2006). A brief history of reading fluency. In S. Samuels & A. Farstrup (Eds.) What research has to say about
Rasinski, T., Homan, S., & Biggs, M. (2009). Teaching reading fluency to struggling readers: method, materials, and evidence. Reading and Writing Quarterly, 25, 192-204.
Rasinski, T., Paige, D., Rains, C., Stewart, F., Julovich, B., Prenkert, D., & Nichols, W. D. (2017). Effects of intensive fluency instruction on the reading proficiency of third-grade struggling readers. Reading and Writing Quarterly, 33(6), 519-532.
Rasinski, T. V., Padak, N., Linek, W., & Sturtevant, E. (1994). Effects of fluency development on urban second-grade readers. Journal of Educational Research, 87, 158-164.
Rasinski, T. V., Padak, N. D., McKeon, C. A., Wilfong, L. G., Friedauer, J. A., & Heim, P. (2005). Is reading fluency a key for successful high school reading? Journal of Adolescent and Adult Literacy, 54, 22-27.
Shankweiler, D., Lundquist, E., Katz, L., Stuebing, K. K., Fletcher, J. M., Brady, S., Fowler, A., Dreyer, L. G., Marchione, K. E., Shaywitz, S. E., & Shaywitz, B. A. (1999). Comprehension and decoding: patterns of association in children with reading difficulties. Scientific Studies of Reading, 3(1), 69-94.
Silverman, R. D., Speece, D. L., & Harring, J. R. (2013). Fluency has a role in the simple view of reading. Scientific Studies of Reading, 17, 108-133.
Stanovich, K. E. (1990). Concepts in developmental theories of reading skill: Cognitive resources, automaticity, and modularity. Developmental Review, 10, 72-100
Steinle, P. K., Stevens, E., & Vaughn, S. (2022). Fluency interventions for struggling readers in grades 6 to 12: A research synthesis. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 55(1), 3-21.
Vander Stappen, C., & Reybroeck, M. V. (2018). Phonological awareness and rapid automatized naming are independent phonological competencies with specific impacts on word reading and spelling: An intervention study. Frontiers in Psychology, 9, 320.
Wagner, R.K., & Torgesen, J.K. (1987). The nature of phonological processing and its causal role in the acquisition of reading skills. Psychological Bulletin, 101(2), 192–212. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.101.2.192
Walczyk, J. J., & Griffith‐Ross, D. A. (2007). How important is reading skill fluency for comprehension? The Reading Teacher, 60(6), 560-569.
Maxim 5: Comprehension—the goal of reading—draws on multiple skills and strengths, including a solid foundation of vocabulary and background knowledge.
The following peer-reviewed research supports the above maxim.
Archer, A. L., Gleason, M. M., & Vachon, V.L. (2003). Decoding and fluency: Foundation skills for struggling older readers. Learning Disability Quarterly, 26, 89-101.
Barth, A E, Catts, H. W., & Anthony, J. L. (2009). The component skills underlying reading fluency in adolescent readers: A latent variable analysis. Reading and Writing, 22, 567-590.
Cain, K., Oakhill, J., & Bryant, P. (2004). Children’s reading comprehension ability: Concurrent prediction by working memory, verbal ability, and component skills. Journal of Educational Psychology, 96(1), 31-42.
Cutting, L. E., & Scarborough, H. S. (2006). Prediction of reading comprehension: Relative contributions of word recognition, language proficiency, and other cognitive skills can depend on how comprehension is measured. Scientific Studies of Reading, 10, 277-299.
Cutting, L. E., Materek, A., Cole, C., Levine, T. M., & Mahone, E. M. (2009). Effects of fluency, oral language, and executive function on reading comprehension performance. Annals of
Chard, D. J., Vaughn S., & Tyler, B. J. (2002). A synthesis of research on effective interventions for building reading fluency with elementary students with learning disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 35(5), 389–406.
Denton, C. A., Barth, A. E., Fletcher, J.M., Wexler, J., Vaughn, S., Cirino, P. T., Romain, M., & Francis, D. J. (2011) The relations among oral and silent reading fluency and comprehension in middle school: Implications for identification and instruction of students with reading difficulties. Scientific Studies of Reading, 15 (2), 109-135.
Ecalle, J., Dujardin, E., Gomes, C., Cros, L., & Magnan, A. (2021). Decoding, fluency and reading comprehension: examining the nature of their relationships in a large-scale study with first graders. Reading and Writing Quarterly, 37(5), 444-461.
Fletcher, J. M., Lyon, G. R., Fuchs, L. S., & Barnes, M. A. (2019). Learning disabilities: From identification to intervention (2nd ed.). The Guilford Press.
Fuchs, L. S., Fuchs, D., Hosp, M. K., & Jenkins, J. R. (2001). Oral reading fluency as an indicator of reading competence: a theoretical, empirical, and historical analysis. Scientific Studies of Reading, 5, 239-256.
Gelzheiser, L. M., Scanlon, D., Vellutino, F., Hallgren-Flynn, L., & Schatschneider, C. (2011). Effects of the interactive strategies approach—Extended: A responsive and comprehensive intervention for intermediate-grade struggling readers. Elementary School Journal, 112(2), 280–306.
Kocaarslan, M. (2021). The relationships between oral reading fluency, sustained attention, working memory, and text comprehension in the third-grade students. Psychology in the Schools, 59, 744-764.
Lubliner, S., & Smetana, L. (2005). The effects of comprehensive vocabulary instruction on Title I students’ metacognitive word-learning skills and reading comprehension. Journal of Literacy Research, 37(2), 163-200.
Lyon, G. R. (1995). Towards a definition of dyslexia. Annals of
Lyon, G. R., Shaywitz, S. E., & Shaywitz, B. A. (2003). A definition of dyslexia. Annals of
National Institute of Child Health and Human Development. (2000). Teaching children to read: An evidence-based assessment of the scientific research literature on reading and its implication for reading instruction (NIH Publication No. 00-4769). Report of the National Reading Panel. Washington, DC. U.S. Government Printing Office.
Nevo, E., Vaknin-Nusbaum, V., Brande, S., & Gambrell, L. (2020). Oral reading fluency, reading motivation and reading comprehension among second graders. Reading and Writing, 33, 1945-1970.
Nippold, M. (2015). Call for studies in implementation science: Improving reading comprehension in school-aged children. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 46, 65-67.
Ouellette, G., & Harris, K. R. (2006). What’s meaning got to do with it: The role of vocabulary in word reading and reading comprehension. Journal of Educational Psychology, 98(3), 554-566.
Quinn, J. M., Wagner, R. K., Petscher, Y., & Lopez, D. (2015). Developmental relations between vocabulary knowledge and reading comprehension: A latent change score modeling study. Child Development, 86(1), 159-175.
Snow, C. (2002). Reading for understanding: Toward an r&d program in reading comprehension. Santa Monica, CA: RAND Corporation.
Stahl, S. A., McKenna, M. C, & Pagnucco, J. R. (1994). The effects of whole-language instruction: An update and a reappraisal. Educational Psychologist, 29, 275-186.
Steinle, P. K., Stevens, E., & Vaughn, S. (2022). Fluency interventions for struggling readers in grades 6 to 12: A research synthesis. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 55(1), 3-21.
Tannenbaum, K. R., Torgesen, J. K., & Wagner, R. K. (2006). Relationships between word knowledge and reading comprehension in third-grade children. Scientific Studies of Reading, 10(4), 381-398.
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Wanzek, J., Wexler, J., Vaughn, S., & Ciullo, S. (2010). Reading interventions for struggling readers in the upper elementary grades: A synthesis of 20 years of research. Reading and Writing, 23(8), 889-912.
Maxim 6: One size does not fit all: use student data to differentiate your instruction.
The following peer-reviewed research supports the above maxim.
Al-Abdallat, B. M., & Al-Samadi, J. M. (2016). A comparison of the effectiveness of the two strategies of direct and reciprocal instruction in improving the reading comprehension skills of students with learning difficulties in reading (dyslexia). Studies: Educational Sciences, 43(1), 525-547.
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Blachman, B. A., Schatschneider, C., Fletcher, J. M., Francis, D. J., Clonan, S. M., Shaywitz, B. A., & Shaywitz, S. E. (2004). Effects of intensive reading remediation for second and third graders and a 1-year follow-up. Journal of Educational Psychology, 96(3), 444.
Chard, D. J., Vaughn, S., & Tyler, B. (2002). A synthesis of research on effective interventions for building reading fluency with elementary students with learning disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 35, 386–406.
Cutting, L. E., & Scarborough, H. S. (2006). Prediction of reading comprehension: Relative contributions of word recognition, language proficiency, and other cognitive skills can depend on how comprehension is measured. Scientific Studies of Reading, 10, 277-299.
Denton, C. A., & Hocker, J. L. (2006). Responsive reading instruction: Flexible intervention for struggling readers in the early grades. Longmont, CO: Sopris West.
Denton, C. A., & Mathes, P. G. (2003). Intervention for struggling readers: possibilities and challenges. In B. R. Foorman (Ed.), Preventing and remediating reading difficulties: bringing science to scale (229–25.) Timonium, MD: York Press.
Ehri, L. C. (2003, March). Systematic
Fletcher, J. M., Lyon, G. R., Fuchs, L. S., & Barnes, M. A. (2019). Learning disabilities: From identification to intervention (2nd ed.). The Guilford Press.
Fletcher, J. M., Denton, C. A., Fuchs, L., & Vaughn, S. R. (2005). Multi-tiered reading instruction: Linking general education and special education. In S. O. Richardson & J. W. Gilger (Eds.), Research-based education and intervention: What we need to know, 21–43. Baltimore: International Dyslexia Association.
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Kuhn, M. R. (2020). Whole class or small group fluency instruction: A tutorial of four effective approaches. Education Sciences, 10(5), 145.
Maki, K. E., & Hammerschmidt-Snidarich, S. (2022). Reading fluency intervention dosage: A novel meta-analysis and research synthesis. Journal of School Psychology, 92, 148-165.
Mathes, P. G., Denton, C. A., Fletcher, J. M., Anthony, J. L., Francis, D. J., & Schatschneider, C. (2005). The effects of theoretically different instruction and student characteristics on the skills of struggling readers. Reading Research Quarterly, 40, 148-182.
Mehta, P. D., Foorman, B. R., Branum-Martin, L., & Taylor, W. P. (2005). Literacy as a unidimensional multilevel construct: Validation, sources of influence, and implications in a longitudinal study in grades 1 to 4. Scientific Studies of Reading, 9(2), 85-116.
Moats, L. C. (1995). The missing foundation in teacher preparation. American Educator, 19(9), 43–51.
Moats, L. C., & Foorman, B. R. (2009). Literacy achievement in the primary grades in high poverty schools: Lessons learned from a five-year research program. In S. Neuman (Ed.), Literacy achievement for young children from poverty. Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes.
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Rasinski, T., Paige, D., Rains, C., Stewart, F., Julovich, B., Prenkert, D., Rupley, W.H., & Nichols, W. D. (2017). Effects of intensive fluency instruction on the reading proficiency of third-grade struggling readers. Reading and Writing Quarterly, 33(6), 519-532.
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Reynolds, B. L., & Ding, C. (2023). The predictive effects of reading speed and positive affect on first and second language incidental vocabulary acquisition through reading an authentic novel. Applied
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Steinle, P. K., Stevens, E., & Vaughn, S. (2022). Fluency interventions for struggling readers in grades 6 to 12: A research synthesis. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 55(1), 3-21.
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Vellutino, F. R. (1991). Introduction to three studies on reading acquisition: Convergent findings on theoretical foundations of code-oriented versus whole-language approaches to reading. Journal of Educational Psychology, 83, 437-443.
Vellutino, F. R., Scanlon, D. M., Sipay, E., Small, S., Pratt, A., Chen, R., & Denckla, M. (1996). Cognitive profiles of difficult-to-remediate and readily remediated poor readers: Early intervention as a vehicle for distinguishing between cognitive and experiential deficits as basic causes of specific reading disability. Journal of Educational Psychology, 88, 601-638.
Verhoeven, L., & van Leeuwe, J. (2008). Prediction of the development of reading comprehension: A longitudinal study.Applied Cognitive Psychology, 22(3), 407– 423.
Wanzek, J., & Vaughn, S. (2008). Response to varying amounts of time in reading intervention for students with low response to intervention. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 41(2), 126-42.
Wasik, B., & Slavis, R. E. (1993). Preventing early reading failure with one-to-one tutoring: A review of five programs. Reading Research Quarterly, 28, 178-200.
Wright, T. S., & Cervetti, G. N. (2017). A systematic review of the research on vocabulary instruction that impacts text comprehension. Reading Research Quarterly, 52(2), 203– 226.
Maxim 7: Direct, systematic instruction helps students develop the skills they need to become strong readers. Indirect, three-cueing instruction is unpredictable in its impact on word reading and leaves too much to chance.
The following peer-reviewed research supports the above maxim.
Adams, G. L., & Engelmann, S. (1996). Research on
Adams, M. J. (1998). The three-cueing system. In J. Osborn & F. Lehr (Eds.), Literacy for all: issues in teaching and learning. (pp.73–99). Guilford Press.
Barbash, S. (2012). Clear teaching: With
Becker W. C., Gersten R. (1982). A follow-up of Follow Through: The later effects of the direct instruction model on children in fifth and sixth grades. American Educational Research Journal. 19(1): 75–92.
Benner G. J., Nelson J. R., Stage S. A., Ralston N. C. (2010). The influence of fidelity of implementation on the reading outcomes of middle school students experiencing reading difficulties. Remedial and Special Education, 32, 79–88.
Blachman, B. A., Schatschneider, C., Fletcher, J. M., Francis, D. J., Clonan, S. M., Shaywitz, B. A., & Shaywitz, S. E. (2004). Effects of intensive reading remediation for second and third graders and a 1-year follow-up. Journal of Educational Psychology, 96(3), 444.
Bruck, M. (1988). The word recognition and spelling of dyslexic children. Reading Research Quarterly, 23, 51-69.
Castles, A., Rastle, K., & Nation, K. (2018). Ending the reading wars: Reading acquisition from novice to expert. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 19(1), 5-51.
Chall, J. S. (1983). Learning to read: The great debate (2nd ed.).New York: McGraw-Hill.
Chapman, J. W., Tunmer, W. E., & Prochnow, J. E. (2001). Does success in the Reading Recovery program depend on developing proficiency in phonological-processing skills? A longitudinal study in a whole language instructional context. Scientific Studies of Reading, 5, 141-176.
Coughlin C. (2014). Outcomes of Engelmann’s direct instruction: Research syntheses. In Stockard J. (Ed.), The science and success of Engelmann’s
Cunningham, A. E. (1990). Explicit versus implicit instruction in phonemic awareness. Journal of Expe
Dahl, K. L., & Freppon, P. A. (1995). A comparison of inner-city children’s interpretations of reading and writing instruction in the early grades in skills-based and whole language classrooms. Reading Research Quarterly, 30, 50-75.
Ehri, L.C. (2005). Learning to read words: Theory, findings, and issues. Scientific Studies of Reading, 9(2), 167–188. https://doi.org/10.1207/s1532799xssr0902_4
Ehri, L.C. (March 2003). Systematic
Ehri, L.C. (2020). The Science of Learning to Read Words: A Case for Systematic Phonics Instruction. Reading Research Quarterly, 55(S1), S45–S60. https://doi.org/10.1002/rrq.334
Ehri, L.C., Nunes, S.R., Willows, D.M., Schuster, B.V., Yaghoub-Zadeh, Z., & Shanahan, T. (2001). Phonemic awareness instruction helps children learn to read: Evidence from the National Reading Panel’s meta-analysis. Reading Research Quarterly, 36(3), 250–287. https://doi.org/10.1598/RRQ.36.3.2
Ehri, L.C., Nunes, S.R., Stahl, S.A., & Willows, D.M. (2001). Systematic phonics instruction helps students learn to read: Evidence from the National Reading Panel’s meta-analysis. Review of Educational Research, 71(3), 393–447. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543071003393
Engelmann S., Becker W. C., Carnine D., Gersten R. (1988). The Direct Instruction Follow Through model: Design and outcomes. Education and Treatment of Children, 11, 303–317.
Engelmann S., Carnine D. (1991). Theory of instruction: principles and applications (Rev. ed.) Eugene, OR: ADI Press. (Originally published 1982)
Fletcher, J. M., Denton, C. A., Fuchs, L., & Vaughn, S. R. (2005). Multi-tiered reading instruction: Linking general education and special education. In S. O. Richardson & J. W. Gilger (Eds.), Research-based education and intervention: What we need to know, 21–43. Baltimore: International Dyslexia Association.
Fletcher, J. M., Lyon, G. R., Fuchs, L. S., & Barnes, M. A. (2019). Learning disabilities: From identification to intervention (2nd ed.). The Guilford Press.
Fletcher, J. M., Savage, R., & Vaughn, S. (2021). A commentary on Bowers (2020) and the role of phonics instruction in reading. Educational Psychology Review, 33, 1249-1274.
Gough, P. B., & Tunmer, W. E. (1986). Decoding, reading, and reading disability. Remedial and Special Education, 7(1), 6–10.
Jeynes, W. H., & Littell, S. W. (2000). A meta-analysis of studies examining the effect of whole language instruction on the literacy of low-SES students. Elementary School Journal, 101(1), 21-33.
Kim, Y. H., & Goetz, E. T. (1994). Context effects on word recognition and reading comprehension of poor and good readers: A test of the interactive-compensatory hypothesis. Reading Research Quarterly, 29(2), 179–188. https://doi.org/10.2307/747810
Kirschner, P.A., Sweller, J., & Clark, R.E. (2006). Why minimal guidance during instruction does not work: An analysis of the failure of constructivist discovery, problem-based, experiential, and inquiry-based teaching. Educational Psychologist, 41(2), 75-86.
Landi N., Perfetti C.A., Bolger D.J., Dunlap S., & Foorman B.R. (2006). The role of discourse context in developing word form representations: A paradoxical relation between reading and learning. Journal of Expe
Liberman, I. Y., Liberman, A. M. (1990). Whole language vs. code emphasis: Underlying assumptions and their implications for reading instruction. Annals of
Lloyd J., Cullinan D., Heins E. D., Epstein M. H. (1980). Direct instruction: Effects on oral and written language comprehension. Learning Disability Quarterly3(4):70–76
Meyer L. A. (1984). Long-term academic effects of the Direct Instruction Project Follow Through. Elementary School Journal, 84(4), 380–394.
Moats, L. C. (2000). Whole language lives on: The illusion of” balanced” reading instruction. DIANE Publishing. Chicago
Perfetti, C.A. (2007). Reading ability: Lexical quality to comprehension. Scientific Studies of Reading, 11(4), 357–383. https://doi.org/10.1080/10888430701530730
Rayner, K., Foorman, B. F., Perfetti, C. A., Pesetsky, D., & Seidenberg, M. S. (2002). How should reading be taught? Scientific American, 286(3), 84-91.
Rayner, K., & Pollatsek, A. (1989). The psychology of reading. New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
Rayner, K. & Pollatsek, A. (1989). The work of the eyes. The psychology of reading. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice.
Rayner, K., Foorman, B.R., Perfetti, C.A., Pesetsky, D., & Seidenberg, M.S. (2001). How psychological science informs the teaching of reading. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 2(2), 31–74. https://doi.org/10.1111/1529-1006.00004
Rasinski, T. V. (2006). A brief history of reading fluency. In S. Samuels & A. Farstrup (Eds.) What research has to say about
Rasinski, T. V., Homan, S., & Biggs, M. (2009). Teaching reading fluency to struggling readers: Method, materials, and evidence. Reading and Writing Quarterly, 25, 192-204.
Rasinski, T. V., Padak, N., Linek, W., & Sturtevant, E. (1994). Effects of fluency development on urban second-grade readers. Journal of Educational Research, 87, 158-164.
Rasinski, T. V., Padak, N. D., McKeon, C. A., Wilfong, L. G., Friedauer, J. A., & Heim, P. (2005). Is reading fluency a key for successful high school reading? Journal of Adolescent and Adult Literacy, 54, 22-27.
Rasinski, T., Rikli, A., & Johnston, S. (2009). Reading fluency: More than automaticity? More than a concern for the primary grades? Literacy Research and Instruction, 48, 350-361.
Rasinski, T., Samules, S. J., Hiebert, E., Petscher, Y., & Feller, K. (2011). The relationship between a silent reading fluency instructional protocol on students’ reading comprehension and achievement in an urban school setting. Reading Psychology, 32, 75-97.
Reis, S. M., McCoach, B. D., Coyne, M., Schreiber, F. J., Eckert, R. D., & Gubbins, J. E. (2007). Using planned enrichment strategies with direct instruction to improve reading fluency, comprehension, and attitude toward reading: an evidence-based study. Elementary School Journal, 108(1), 3-24.
Rosenshine B. (2012) Principles of instruction: Research-based strategies that all teachers should know. American Educator, 36(1):12–19.
Rosenthal R. (1990) How are we doing in soft psychology? American Psychologist, 45(6), 775-777.
Schatz, E.K., & Baldwin, R.S. (1986). Context clues are unreliable predictors of word meanings. Reading Research Quarterly, 21, 451.
Share, D.L. (1990). Self correction rates in oral reading: Indices of efficient reading or artifact of text difficulty? Educational Psychology, 10, 181-186.
Slocum, T. & Rolf, K. R. (2021). Features of direct instruction: Content analysis. Behavior Analysis in Practice. 14(3), 775–784.
Stahl, S. A., McKenna, M. C, & Pagnucco, J. R. (1994). The effects of whole-language instruction: An update and a reappraisal. Educational Psychologist, 29,275-186.
Stanovich, K. E. (1990). Concepts in developmental theories of reading skill: Cognitive resources, automaticity, and modularity. Developmental Review, 10, 72-100.
Stanovich, K.E. (1986). Matthew effects in reading: Some consequences of individual differences in the acquisition of literacy. Reading Research Quarterly, 21, 360-406.
Stanovich, K.E. (1994). Romance and reality. The Reading Teacher, 47, 280-291. http://www.keithstanovich.com/Site/Research_on_Reading_files/RdTch93.pdf
Stanovich, K. E. (1980). Toward an interactive-compensatory model of individual differences in the development of reading fluency. Reading Research Quarterly, 16, 32–71
Stanovich, K. (1982). Individual differences in the cognitive processes of reading: I. Word decoding. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 15, 485–493.
Stanovich, K. E. (1991). Word recognition: Changing perspectives. In R. Barr, M. L. Kamil, P. Mosenthal & P. D. Pearson (Eds.), Handbook of reading research (Vol. 2, pp. 418–452). New York: Longman.
Stanovich, K. E., & West, R. F. (1983). On priming by a sentence context. Journal of Expe
Stanovich, K. E., West, R. F., & Feeman, D. J. (1981). A longitudinal study of sentence context effects in second-grade children: Tests of an interactive-compensatory model. Journal of Expe
Stockard, J. (2010). Promoting reading achievement and countering the “fourth-grade slump”: The impact of direct instruction on reading achievement in fifth grade. Journal of Education for Students Placed at Risk, 15(3):218–240.
Stockard, J. (2011) Increasing reading skills in rural areas: An analysis of three school districts. Journal of Research in Rural Education, 26(8):1–19.
Stockard, J., Wood T. W., Coughlin, C., & Rasplica Khoury, C. (Eds) (2018). The effectiveness of direct instruction curricula: A meta-analysis of a half century of research. Review of Educational Research, 88(4):479–507.
Vellutino, F. (1978). Toward an understanding of dyslexia: Psychological factors in specific reading disability. In Benton, A. L., and Pearl, D. (eds.),
Vellutino, F., & Scanlon, D. (1987). Phonological coding, phonological awareness, and reading ability: Evidence from a longitudinal and experimental study. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 33, 321–363.
Vellutino, F. R. (1991). Introduction to three studies on reading acquisitions: Convergent findings on theoretical foundations of code-oriented versus whole-language approaches to reading. Journal of Educational Psychology, 83(4), 437-443.
White, W. A. T. (1988). A meta-analysis of the effects of Direct Instruction in special education. Education and Treatment of Children, 11, 364–374.
Maxim 8: These maxims apply to English Learners/Emergent Bilinguals, who often need extra support to bolster their oral language as they learn to read and write in a new language.
The following peer-reviewed research supports the above maxim.
August, D., & Shanahan, T. (2006). Developing literacy in second-language learners: Report of the national literacy panel on language-minority children and youth. Center for Applied Linguistics, Lawrence Eribaum Associates: Mahway, NJ.
Aukerman, M., & Schuldt, L. C. (2021). What matters most? Toward a robust and socially just science of reading, Reading Research Quarterly, 56(S1), 85-103).
Bengochea, A., & Sembiante, S. F., (2023)., A review of the methodological characteristics of vocabulary interventions for emergent bilinguals in preschool to sixth grade. Review of Education, 11(1).
Bratlie, S. S., Gustafsson, J., Torkildsen, J. V. (2021). Effectiveness of a classroom‐implemented, app‐based morphology program for language‐minority students: Examining latent language‐literacy profiles and contextual factors as moderators. Reading Research Quarterly, 57(3), 805-829.
Crosson, A. C., & Silverman, R. D. (2021). Impact of COVID‐19 on early literacy instruction for emergent bilinguals. Reading Research Quarterly, 57(1), 5-14.
Ehri, L. C., Dreyer, L. G., Flugman, B., & Gross, A. (2007). Reading Rescue: An effective tutor-ing intervention model for language-minority students who are struggling readers in first grade. American Educational Research Journal, 44(2), 414–448.
Goldenberg, C. (2013). Reading wars, reading science, and English learners. Reading Research Quarterly, 55(S), 131-144.
Goldenberg, C. & Cardenas-Hagan, E. (2023, Jan/Feb). Literacy research on English learners: Past, present, and future. The Reading League Journal, 12-21.
Goodwin, A. P., & Jiménez, R. T. (2021). The science of reading: Supports, critiques, and questions. Reading Research Quarterly, 56, S7-S22.
Jensen, B. (2021). Advancing the science of teaching reading equitably. Reading Research Quarterly, 56(S1) 69-84.
Li, P., & Clariana, R. B. (2019). Reading comprehension in L1 and L2: An integrative approach. Journal of Neuro
Long, S., Volpe, R. J., & Briesch, A. M. (2022). Evaluation of a computer‐assisted letter sound tutoring program: An application to preschool English language learners. Psychology in the Schools, 60(3), 658-678.
Mancilla‐Martinez, J., Hwang, J. K., Oh, M. H. (2021). Assessment selection for multilingual learners’ reading development. The Reading Teacher, 75(3), 351-362.
Raudszus, H., Segers, E., & Verhoeven, L. (2019). Situation model building ability uniquely predicts first and second language reading comprehension. Journal of Neuro
Saunders, W., Goldenberg, C., & Marcellett, D. (2013). Guidelines for English language development instruction. American Educator, 37 (2), 13-25, 38-39.
Vargas, I., Hall, C., & Solari, E. (2021, Sept/Oct). Brick by brick: Landmark studies on reading development, assessment, and instruction for students who are English learners. The Reading League Journal, 37-41.
Vaughn, S., Mathes, P., Linan-Thompson, S., Cirino, P., Carlson, C., Pollard-Durodola, S., Cardenas- Hagan, E., & Francis, D. (2006). Effectiveness of an English intervention for first-grade English language learners at risk for reading problems. Elementary School Journal, 107(2), 153-180.
Verhoeven, L., Perfetti, C., & Pugh, K. (2019). Cross-linguistic perspectives on second language reading. Journal of Neuro
Verhoeven, L., Voeten, M., & Vermeer, A. (2019). Beyond the simple view of early first and second language reading: the impact of lexical quality. Journal of Neuro
Wagner, R.K., & Torgesen, J.K. (1987). The nature of phonological processing and its causal role in the acquisition of reading skills. Psychological Bulletin, 101(2), 192–212. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.101.2.192
Wagner, R.K., Torgesen, J.K., & Rashotte, C.A. (1994). Development of reading-related phonological processing abilities: New evidence of bidirectional causality from a latent variable longitudinal study. Developmental Psychology, 30(1), 73–87. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.30.1.73
Yaden, D.B., Reinking, D., & Smagorinsky, P. (2021). The trouble with binaries: A perspective on the science of reading. Reading Research Quarterly, 56(S1), S119-S129.
Maxim 9: We should support students who speak languages or dialects other than General American English at home, by honoring their home language and by giving them expanded opportunities to engage with General American English text.
The following peer-reviewed research supports the above maxim.
Seidenberg, M. & MacDonald, M. (2018). The impact of language experience on language and reading. Topics in Language Disorders (38)1, 66-83.
Vaughn, S., Mathes, P. G., Linan-Thompson, S., & Francis, D. J. (2005). Teaching english language learners at risk for reading disabilities to read: Putting research into practice. Learning Disabilities Research and Practice, 20 (10), 58-67.
Washington, J. A., Branum-Martin, L., Sun, C., & Lee-James, R. (2018). The impact of dialect density on the growth of language and reading in African American children. Language Speech and Hearing Services in Schools, (49)2: 232-247.
Washington, J. & Seidenberg, M. (2021). Teaching reading to African American children: When home and school language differ American Educator, (Summer): 26-40
Maxim 10: To become good readers and writers, students need to integrate many skills that are built over time.
The following peer-reviewed research supports the above maxim.
Barth, A. E, Catts, H. W., & Anthony, J. L. (2009) The component skills underlying reading fluency in adolescent readers: a latent variable analysis. Reading and Writing, 22, 567-590.
Blachman, B. A., Schatschneider, C., Fletcher, J. M., Francis, D. J., Clonan, S. M., Shaywitz, B. A., & Shaywitz, S. E. (2004). Effects of intensive reading remediation for second and third graders and a 1-year follow-up. Journal of Educational Psychology, 96(3), 444.
Bowers, J. S., & Bowers, P. N. (2017). Beyond phonics: The case for teaching children the logic of the English spelling system. Educational Psychologist, 52, 124–141. 2017
Bowers, J., and Bowers, P. N. (in press). Progress in reading instruction requires a better understanding of the English spelling system. Current Directions in Psychological Science.
Catts, H. W., Hogan, T. P., & Adlof, S. M. (2005). Developmental changes in reading and reading disabilities. In H. W. Catts & A. G. Kamhi (Eds.), The connections between language and reading disabilities, (pp.25–40.), Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Cain, K., Oakhill, J., & Bryant, P. (2004). Children’s reading comprehension ability: Concurrent prediction by working memory, verbal ability, and component skills. Journal of Educational Psychology, 96(1), 31-42.
Chall, J. S. (1967). Learning to read: The great debate. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Chall, J. S. (1983). The Stages of Reading Development. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Cutting, L. E., & Scarborough, H. S. (2006). Prediction of reading comprehension: Relative contributions of word recognition, language proficiency, and other cognitive skills can depend on how comprehension is measured. Scientific Studies of Reading, 10, 277-299.
Cutting, L. E., Materek, A., Cole, C., Levine, T. M., & Mahone, E. M. (2009). Effects of fluency, oral language, and executive function on reading comprehension performance. Annals of
Connor, C. M., Morrison, F. J., & Katch, L. E. (2004). Beyond the reading wars: Exploring the effect of child-instruction interactions on growth in early reading. Scientific Studies of Reading, 8, 305-336
Cunningham, A. E. & Stanovich, K. (1997) Early reading acquisition and its relation to reading experience and ability 10 years later. Developmental Psychology, 33 (6), 934-945.
Eden, G. F., Jones, K. M., Cappell, K., Gareau, L., Wood, F. B., Zeffiro, T. A., Dietz, N. A. E., Agnew, J. A., & Flowers, D. L. (2004). Neural changes following remediation in adult developmental dyslexia. Neuron, 44 (3), 411-422.
Ferrer, E., Shaywitz, B. A., Holahan, J. M., Marchione, K. E., Michaels, R., & Shaywitz, S. E. (2015). Achievement gap in reading is present as early as first grade and persists through adolescence. The Journal of Pediatrics, 167(5), 1121-1125.
Fletcher, J. M., Lyon, G. R., Fuchs, L. S., & Barnes, M. A. (2019). Learning disabilities: from identification to intervention (2nd ed.). The Guilford Press.
Fletcher, J. M., Lyon, G. R., Barnes, M., Stuebing, K. K., Francis, D. J., Olson, R. K., Shaywitz, S. E., & Shaywitz, B. A., 2002. Classification of learning disabilities: An evidence-based evaluation. In R.Bradley, L. Danielson., & D.P. Hallahan, D. P. (Eds.). (2002). Identification of learning disabilities: Research to practice. (pp. 185-250). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers.
Francis, D. J., Shaywitz, S. E., Stuebing, K. K., Shaywitz, B. A., & Fletcher, J. M. (1996). Developmental lag versus deficit models of reading disability: A longitudinal, individual growth curves analysis. Journal of Educational Psychology, 88(1), 3.
Gelzheiser, L. M., Scanlon, D., Vellutino, F., Hallgren-Flynn, L., & Schatschneider, C. (2011). Effects of the interactive strategies approach—extended: A responsive and comprehensive intervention for intermediate-grade struggling readers. Elementary School Journal, 112(2), 280–306.
Graham, S., Liu, X., Aitken, A., Ng, C., Bartlett, B., Harris, K., & Holzapfel, J. (2017). Effectiveness of literacy programs balancing reading and writing instruction: A meta-analysis. Reading Research Quarterly, 53(3), 279-304.
Graham, S. (2020). The sciences of reading and writing must become more fully integrated. Reading Research Quarterly, 55(51), 535-544.
Guthrie, J. T., McRae, A., Coddington, C. S., Lutz Klauda, S., Wigfield, A., & Barbosa, P. ( 2009). Impacts of comprehensive reading instruction on diverse outcomes of low- and high-achieving readers. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 42(3), 195-214.
Hock, M. F., Brasseur, I. F., Deshler, D. D., Catts, H. W., Marquis, J., Mark, C. A., et al. (2009). What is the reading component skill profile of adolescent struggling readers in urban schools? Learning Disability Quarterly, 32, 21-38.
Joseph, L. M., & Schisler, R. (2009). Should adolescents go back to the basics? A review of teaching word reading skills to middle and high school students. Remedial and Special Education, 30 (3), 131- 147.
Leppänen, U., Aunola, K., Niemi, P., Nurmi, J. (2008). Letter knowledge predicts Grade 4 reading fluency and reading comprehension. Learning and Instruction, 18(6), 548- 564.
Moats, L. (2001). When older kids can’t read. Educational Leadership, 58(6), 36-40.
Moats, L. C., & Foorman, B. R. (2009). Literacy achievement in the primary grades in high poverty schools: Lessons learned from a five-year research program. In S. Neuman (Ed.), Literacy achievement for young children from poverty. (pp. 91-111) Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes.
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Oakhill, J. & Cain, K. (2012) The precursors of reading ability in young readers: Evidence from a four-year longitudinal study. Scientific Studies of Reading, 16(2), 91-121.
Petscher, Y., Cabell, S.Q., Catts, H.W., Compton, D.L., Foorman, B.R., Hart, S.A., Lonigan, C.J., Phillips, B.M., Schatschneider, C., Steacy, L.M., Terry, N.P., & Wagner, R.K. (2020). How the Science of Reading Informs 21st-Century Education. Reading Research Quarterly, 55(S1), S267-S282. https://doi.org/10.1002/rrq.352
Roman, A. A., Kirby, J.R. Parrila, R. K., Wade-Woolley, L, Deacon, S. H. (2009) Toward a comprehensive view of the skills involved in word reading in Grades 4, 6, and 8. Journal of Expe
Schatschneider, C., Fletcher, J. M., Francis, D. J., Carlson, C. D., & Foorman, B. R. (2004). Kindergarten prediction of reading skills: A longitudinal comparative analysis. Journal of Educational Psychology, 96, 265-282.
Shanahan, T., Callison, K., Carriere, C., Duke, N. K., Pearson, P. D., Schatschneider, C., & Torgesen, J. (2010). Improving reading comprehension in kindergarten through 3rd grade: A practice guide (NCEE 2010-4038). Washington, DC: National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance, Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education.
Shaywitz, B. A., Skudlarski, P., Holahan, J. M., Marchione, K. E., Constable, R. T., Fulbright, R. K., Zelterman, D., Lacadie, C., & Shaywitz, S. E. (2007). Age‐related changes in reading systems of dyslexic children. Annals of Neurology, 61(4), 363-370.
Shaywitz, S .E., Shaywitz, B. A., Fletcher, J.M., & Escobar, M.D. (1990). Prevalence of reading disability in boys and girls: Results of the connecticut longitudinal study. JAMA 264(8): 998–1002.
Shaywitz, S. E., Fletcher, J. M., Holahan, J. M., Shneider, A. E., Marchione, K. E., Stuebing,K. K., Francis, D. J., Pugh, K. R., & Shaywitz, B.A. (1999). Persistence of dyslexia: The Connecticut longitudinal study at adolescence. Pediatrics 104(6), 1351-1359.
Steinle, P. K., Stevens, E., & Vaughn, S. (2022). Fluency interventions for struggling readers in grades 6 to 12: a research synthesis. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 55(1), 3-21.
Thames, D., Reeves, C., Kazelskis, R., York, K., Boling, C., Newell, K., & Wang, Y. (2008). Reading comprehension: Effects of individualized, integrated language arts as a reading approach with struggling readers. Reading Psychology, 29(1), 86-115.
Torgesen, J. K. (2004). Avoiding the devastating downward spiral: The evidence that early intervention prevents reading failure. American Educator, 28(3), 6-19.
Vellutino, F. R., Tunmer, W. E., Jaccard, J. J., & Chen, R. (2007). Components of reading ability: Multivariate evidence for a convergent skills model of reading development. Scientific Studies of Reading, 11(1), 3-32.
Wagner, R.K., J. K., & Rashotte, C. A. (1994). Development of reading-related phonological processing abilities: New evidence of bidirectional causality from a latent variable longitudinal study. Developmental Psychology, 30(1), 73-87. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.30.1.73
Wanzek, J., Wexler, J., Vaughn, S., & Ciullo, S. (2010). Reading interventions for struggling readers in the upper elementary grades: A synthesis of 20 years of research. Reading and Writing, 23(8), 889-912.
Contributors: Jane Ashby, Louise Dechovitz, Linda Diamond, Jan Hasbrouck, Kari Kurto, and Julie Washington
Read the Maxims
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